Version actuelle datée du 11 mars 2020 à 10:31

The birth of the United Nations

Données clés
Professeur(s)	Sacha Zala^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]
Cours	Multilateral diplomacy and international organizations

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French attempts to improve the security system[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The League of Nations experienced many crises during the inter-war period and many of these crises can be read as failures of the League of Nations in the context of French attempts to improve the security system.

Photo of the signing ceremony of the Briand-Kellog Pact in Paris.

France during the inter-war period made constant attempts to strengthen collective security in its own interest and against that of Germany. First, there was the attempt at an alliance between France, the United States and Great Britain, which failed in 1920, the establishment of a sanctions mechanism through the International Blockade Commission in 1921, the mutual assistance treaty which failed in 1924, the Geneva Protocol failed in 1924 to give the League of Nations full powers to arbitrate in the event of conflict and was called into question following British pressure. The 1923 Locarno Treaty secures Germany's western border, it is a treaty made outside the League of Nations, but closely linked. In 1928, there was the Briand-Kellog Pact against war with an optional protocol on the peaceful resolution of mandatory disputes. This pact aims to condemn war as a means of conflict resolution and as an instrument of national policy^[6]. War is outside the rules of international relations despite the fact that there are crises, but this is important for development from the point of view of international law. The Briand Plan of 1930 was intended to create a federal European link, but this did not succeed. There is the failure of the World Conference on Disarmament. Between 1932 and 1934, there was the Geneva Conference on Disarmament in Geneva, which was an effort undertaken by Member States in collaboration with the United States and the Soviet Union, but it was not successful. In 1935, there was an alliance treaty between France and the Soviet Union with a return to the old system. This treaty, which should have ensured France's security, will never be applied. We leave this period with all kinds of problems and in 1933, when National Socialism came to power in Germany, we found ourselves in this constellation.

The League of Nations and international security[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Stalin and Ribbentrop signing the Treaty on the Border and Friendship between the German Reich and the Soviet Union on 28 September 1939.

The traditional interpretation is that the League of Nations succeeded until the mid-1930s in repelling aggression, but this positon is false. The League of Nations was unable to find solutions to asymmetric conflicts in the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1930s, the system collapsed first with Manchuria, the Chaco conflict and the Ethiopian crisis. The consequence is that Hitler can easily destroy what remains of the League of Nations after leaving the League of Nations in 1933 and the Conference on Disarmament, reintroduce conscription in Germany in 1935, the remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936, the annexation of Austria in 1938, the aggression against Czechoslovakia and Poland in 1938 and 1939. The idea of peacemakers turns out to be a chimera for conflict resolution in the reality of historical facts. The main facts are the absence of the United States, the policy of balance pursued by the West does not correspond to the principles of the Pact of the policy of appeasement of the West, this is a failure.

Soviet and German soldiers fraternizing after the invasion of Poland, Brest-Litovsk, 1939 September 20.

It should be noted that the birth of the United Nations occurred as a strange alliance between two democracies, the United States and Great Britain, but also the Soviet Union. This can only be understood in the context of the Second World War and in the immediate post-war period. This concept requires only that the United Nations is at the origin of military alliances against Axis forces. In 1939, with the signing of the non-aggression treaty, the German-Soviet pact, also known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, was the pact in which the Soviet Union and Hitler's Germany shared areas of influence in Central and Eastern Europe. This pact gives Hitler free rein to start the Second World War, it is an astonishing pact since the Soviets and Nazis were ideologically opposed.

German troops crossing the border on June 22, 1941, 2 km west of Zabialától.

In 1941, Nazi Germany launched an offensive against the Soviet army with Operation Barbarossa, which was a surprise. The Soviet Union will succeed in entering the alliance with the allies and in June 1941. The United States was neutral, but because President Roosevelt took a strong stand against the Axis forces, in 1937 there was a speech in the forties, especially since the United States put in place the lend and lease plan to support the British war effort. Roosevelt was convinced of the need for a global peacekeeping organization. In January 1941, he presented himself against totalitarianism in the State of Union Address speech in which he formulated Four freedoms: freedom of expression, freedom of religion, freedom from want and freedom from fear.

The birth of the United Nations[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The Atlantic Charter and the United Nations Declaration[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Roosevelt and Churchill aboard ship.

In August 1941, fundamental freedoms were enshrined and supplemented in the Atlantic Charter between Great Britain and the United States. It is a meeting that takes place on a warship off Newfoundland between Roosevelt and Churchill.

« The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world »

— Atlantic Charter, August 14, 1941

These are very strong points, but the United States is not yet ready to follow because it is not at war.

The first point says « their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other ». Les alliés s’engagent à ne pas annexer de territoires. The second point says « they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned ». This is the principle of the self-determination of peoples. The third point says « they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them ». This point is explosive if we interpret it as meaning that the Dominions of the British Empire could read that they can choose their form of government. The fourth point states that « they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity ». It is intended not to make the same mistakes as at Versailles. It is the principle of free trade that is a Liberal principle.

Document containing the clauses of the charter.

With the fifth point that says « they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security », the social question is put forward as a kind of countermeasure to what will be put in place during the Cold War. The sixth point states that « after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want ». The American President shows that he has used all his means and is de facto at war. The fact that the attack on Pearl Harbour played a role in the United States' entry into the war determined the United States' entry into the war against Japan. The seventh point « such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance » reminds us of the freedom of the seas. The eighth point « they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments » is the passage that touches on the creation of the United Nations, but in a very vague way. The concept of disarmament must be pushed forward by the major powers pending the establishment of a broader and permanent system of general security. These points will be reflected in the UN Charter.

Roosevelt showed himself to be the initiator of the Charter and Churchill returned to the United Kingdom as a hero. Churchill was afraid that the principle of the Charter would not be well received in the British colonies. It was especially point three that had disruptive potential towards the Empire. Churchill wanted a new international organization that would reflect the League of Nations. In 1941, the measure was not in a position to impose itself militarily and politically in the United States. The Atlantic Charter describes the post-war order as a period of peace and social security because there is fear of the attractiveness of communism after the end of the war. The Charter only mentions the new international organization that is to be established.

In September 1941, there was an Allied Declaration and various states joined the principle of the Atlantic Charter, including the Soviet Union. The countries allied against Nazism accept this charter.

The international situation changed abruptly after the attack on Pearl Harbour. In December 1941, this caused the United States to enter the war and marked the birth of the true allies. From that moment on, those who signed the Charter formed a real military alliance against a clear enemy, the Axis powers. The Atlantic Charter became a guideline for the anti-Hitler coalition. It is on this basis that on 1 January 1942, 26 States signed the United Nations Declaration. It is the nations that have united as a war coalition against Germany. Until 1945, 19 additional states were added to these 26 states. The States that have signed this declaration are considered as founding members of the United Nations as stipulated in Article 3 of the UN Charter. Basically, it was a question of defeating the Axis forces together and avoiding concluding a separate peace. The United Nations is not going to make a separate peace with Germany.

From the point of view of content, the declaration does not stipulate any concrete indications with regard to the post-war order. It was a trick of the United States to leave this Charter open in order to avoid concrete questions and problems and thus not to endanger the War Alliance. The beginnings of the UN are clearly and clearly a war alliance.

THE UNRRA[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

In this conception of a War Alliance, UNRRA plays a fundamental role. This organization was founded in November 1943. Its purpose was to provide food, oil, clothing, shelter and other basic needs to the victims of the war. UNRRA was a classic international organization based on an agreement signed between several States. UNRRA had a lasting impact on the post-war order. In a first phase, forty states were part of UNRRA, rising to 51 at the end of the war.

In its most active period, UNRRA had about 20,000 employees. The UN will only reach this number in 1977. The organization was largely funded by the United States. Apart from her military duties, she also had the civilian function of protecting powers in the conquered territories. UNRRA has done its work always based on the Four Freedoms. Although UNRRA was conceived as global and autonomous, it had links with the League of Nations. The main beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, Ukraine and Yugoslavia.

The principle was that powerful states would maintain peace while others would disarm. It is a community of disarmed states with an international police force. Churchill questioned the role of China and the Soviet Union. Churchill wanted to give an important role to small states. In 1943, Churchill opposed Roosevelt proposing three regional councils with a great power at the head of each. The various conferences will lead to the creation of the United Nations.

Post-war plan[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

On October 30, 1943, there was the Moscow Declaration also known as the Four Nations. Great Britain will renounce the regional concept that was the idea of sharing the world in spheres of influence. Britain is seeking to find a sphere of influence, but must now share it with the two major emerging powers. In addition, it had to accept China into the circle of great powers. The idea was to found a peaceful organization. It was the 1943 Tehran conference that clarified some fundamental questions about the new organization that needed to be created. Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin agreed to found a universal world organization. As a result, the United States took the initiative to develop concrete proposals. This is where the United Nations is conceptually being set up. From the outset, in 1943, there was clarity about how to organize the UN after the war.

In 1944, the proposals to found the UN were established at the Dumbarton Oax conference. It was expected that the League of Nations could no longer have its place in the new world order because it could no longer fulfil its role satisfactorily and because the Soviet Union and the United States were not members of it. For the Soviet Union, this organization was imperialist, and the United States' refusal to join had weakened the League of Nations. It was important to leave with a new organization. The structures of the United Nations are not fundamentally different from those of the League of Nations with an Assembly, a Council and a Secretariat, in addition to which there is an International Court of Justice. The UN was to have a contingent of troops to keep the peace being a rupture with the League of Nations, the right of veto is abolished for the Assembly. The UN gives more weight to the great powers. In Dumbarton Oax, there have been minimal changes, but this conference will lead to the San Francisco conference. This prevented the great powers from evading their duty. The fact that the major powers have more weight forces them to take responsibility.

It was Roosevelt who, at the Yalta conference in February 1945, purged the last political differences there were and was able to obtain his desire to create the UN. Roosevelt's role during the war is comparable to Wilson's role in Paris during the First World War. Thanks to the Commonwealth, Britain could ensure that it had more strength and voice because all the dominions could vote. With this additional weight, Stalin was able to make it clear that Belarus and Ukraine were admitted to the United Nations as an independent and autonomous member with voting rights. Stalin also limited the right of veto to questions of substances. During the Yalta conference, it was also decided to keep the practice of mandates in place and to define them as territories under the administration of great powers. Roosevelt wanted to act quickly, it was especially important to use the fact that in the United States, public opinion in the euphoria at the end of the war was still positive. The choice of San Francisco is also symbolic for the founding conference of the UN.

Roosevelt died before the conference began. His successor, Truman, announces that this is an absolute priority. There are 45 States participating in the San Francisco Conference. It was the states that were at war with the Axis powers. Many countries will go to war against the Axis at the very end of the war also to be among the founding members of the UN. In San Francisco, there is a change with regard to the "great" Men. With Roosevelt's death and Churchill's departure, the political scene led to a discontinuity. There is a difference in the vision of these policies put in place.

The San Francisco Conference and the Charter[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

President Truman at the San Francisco conference.

Although this conference was aimed at trying to create a new world order, it was different from the other major Westphalian conferences until 1919. Madeleine Herren points out that this is the first time a wise global peace agreement has been signed within the framework of the United Nations. The Charter was adopted before the end of the war. This is no longer the old logic where war is the continuation of politics by other means. It is already during the war that we are trying to build principles that will mark international law before the end of the war.

The size of this conference was twice the size of the Paris conference of 1919. About 10,000 people, experts and diplomats are attending the conference. Only the states that had declared war on the Axis forces had been admitted to this conference. There were also feminist organizations supported by Eleanor Roosevelt, who plays an important role in San Francisco, but also for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The United Nations logo is a new global communication system.

The most difficult discussions are the issue of the Security Council and the veto power that was linked to the member of the Security Council. It needed to be clarified whether the veto could cover substantive and procedural issues. The Soviet Union will ask for something other than what was declared during the war, requiring that the veto right be applicable to procedural matters. The Soviet position will eventually prevail in the Security Council. This influenced the functioning of the UN during the Cold War. The Soviets also raised the issue of amending the Charter, it takes two-thirds of the Assembly to amend the Charter. This is the power that the powers in the Security Council have agreed upon.

Latin America wanted at least one permanent seat for Latin America, India asked that the number of inhabitants be taken into account and Liberia asked that the alphabetical order of non-permanent members be followed in order to guarantee equal opportunities. Finally, it is said that geographical distribution must be properly taken into account and ensure that members defend world peace. In 1945, there were six non-permanent members. The number of members was later adapted to meet the growing number of countries, particularly after 1960.

San Francisco is a success for France, which will be admitted as the fifth major power with veto power and a seat on the Security Council. Britain wanted a partner in Western Europe so that it would not be alone with the United States in case the United States withdrew and it had to face the Soviet Union.

The second important body is the General Assembly. During the San Francisco conference, it was the small and medium-sized states that tried to counterbalance the Security Council. Small states are looking for something more and not to have an organization under the control of the major powers. There is a compromise in Articles 10 and 11 of the Charter where the major powers say that global security and peace preservation issues can be discussed by the Assembly, which can also provide recommendations to the Security Council. This is a result that will mask the way the UN works.

The major powers were able to largely impose their ideas formulated in Dumbarton Oax and practically dominated the new organization. What was new was that the UN could mobilize its own troops, which would later be called "blue helmets" to impose Security Council decisions. The history of the United Nations shows that the structures of newly developed organizations have recovered in times of crisis as stable and functional as pessimists feared during their foundation... The UN manages to be stronger than pessimists thought and weaker than optimists thought. Italy and Austria joined the organization in 1955, followed later by Japan, and it was in 1973 that the two separate Germanies joined the United Nations.

During the San Francisco conference, there was little discussion about the Secretary General, who is the most senior UN official and works for all organs of the organization. The organs of the United Nations have a slight difference from those of the League of Nations, particularly in terms of the right of veto, which is the most different element between the two organizations. In Europe, the headquarters is moved to New York, but Geneva was able to save itself as the home of the European headquarters of the UN.

Today, it is self-evident that peacekeeping and human rights are linked. It was actually the United States that proposed the idea. The American delegation faced a dilemma, Roosevelt wanted to make human rights a central principle of the organization, on the other hand, it was necessary to prevent interference in American internal affairs from starting and to prevent the Senate from rejecting the Charter. The British also warned strongly against the inclusion of human rights in the Charter because there was no universal consensus and this jeopardized the concept of absolute state sovereignty. For the Soviets, human rights were not a major issue. Finally, both London and Moscow voted in favour of introducing human rights into the Charter to avoid weakening the process.

It was the founding conference in San Francisco that was decisive for the conception in the Charter of Human Rights. The idea of human rights finally came to the fore with the 1948 General Declaration of Human Rights. Although this declaration remained legally indicative, its international effect was enormous with an important first step towards a universal consensus of values. Although this statement had many imperfections, it contributed to the fact that the basic consensus did not fall apart.

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Foreign Affairs,. (2015). The American System and the World Organization. Retrieved 24 August 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/americas/1945-10-01/american-system-and-world-organization (foreignaffairs.com/articles/americas/1945-10-01/american-system-and-world-organization Archive copy)
“The League of Nations.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 141–142. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703534.
Goodrich, Leland M. “From League of Nations to United Nations.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 3–21. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703515.

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

↑ Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses
↑ CV de Sacha Zala
↑ Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala
↑ Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l’Université de Berne
↑ Site personnel de Sacha Zala
↑ Schmitt, Carl, Marie-Louise Steinhauser, and Julien Freund. La Notion De Politique ; Théorie Du Partisan. Paris : Flammarion, 2009. p.91 - 92

[1] Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses

[2] CV de Sacha Zala

[3] Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala

[4] Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l’Université de Berne

[5] Site personnel de Sacha Zala

[6] Schmitt, Carl, Marie-Louise Steinhauser, and Julien Freund. La Notion De Politique ; Théorie Du Partisan. Paris : Flammarion, 2009. p.91 - 92

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@@ Ligne 2 : / Ligne 2 : @@
   |image=
   |image_caption=
-  |cours= [[Diplomatie multilatérale et organisations internationales]]
+  |cours= [[Multilateral diplomacy and international organizations]]
   |faculté=
   |département=
-  |professeurs=[[Sacha Zala]]<ref>[https://www.dodis.ch/fr/portrait/groupe-de-recherche/sacha-zala Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses]</ref><ref>[http://www.zala.ch/cv/CV_Zala.pdf CV de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sacha_Zala&oldid=189708391 Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[http://www.hist.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/zala_sacha/index_ger.html Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l'Université de Berne]</ref><ref>[https://www.zala.ch/ Site personnel de Sacha Zala]</ref>
+  |professeurs=[[Sacha Zala]]<ref>[https://www.dodis.ch/fr/portrait/groupe-de-recherche/sacha-zala Profil de Sacha Zala sur Documents Diplomatiques Suisses]</ref><ref>[http://www.zala.ch/cv/CV_Zala.pdf CV de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sacha_Zala&oldid=189708391 Profil wikipedia de Sacha Zala]</ref><ref>[http://www.hist.unibe.ch/ueber_uns/personen/zala_sacha/index_ger.html Profil de Sacha Zala sur le site de l’Université de Berne]</ref><ref>[https://www.zala.ch/ Site personnel de Sacha Zala]</ref>
   |enregistrement=
   |lectures=
-*[[Introduction au cours de diplomatie multilatérale et organisations internationales]]
+*[[Introduction to the Multilateral Diplomacy and International Organizations Course]]
-*[[Les débuts de la gestion du système internationale : le concert européen et le nouvel internationalisme]]
+*[[The beginnings of the management of the international system: the European concert and the new internationalism]]
-*[[Aux origines de la Société des Nations]]
+*[[The origins of the League of Nations]]
-*[[La paix de Paris et la Société des Nations]]
+*[[The Peace of Paris and the League of Nations]]
-*[[La Société des Nations comme organisation pour la coopération technique, économique, sociale et humanitaire]]
+*[[The League of Nations as an organization for technical, economic, social and humanitarian cooperation]]
-*[[La Société des Nations et la sécurité internationales : 1920 – 1939]]
+*[[The League of Nations and International Security: 1920 - 1939]]
-*[[La naissance de l’Organisation des Nations Unies]]
+*[[The birth of the United Nations]]
-*[[L’ONU et la Guerre froide de 1945 à 1973 : crises et coopérations]]
+*[[The United Nations and the Cold War from 1945 to 1973: crises and cooperation]]
-*[[L’ONU et la sécurité internationale : 1945 – 2013]]
+*[[The United Nations and international security: 1945 - 2013]]
 }}
 {{Translations
-| en = La naissance de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
+| fr = La naissance de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
-| es =
+| es = El nacimiento de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas
 }}
@@ Ligne 32 : / Ligne 32 : @@
 France during the inter-war period made constant attempts to strengthen collective security in its own interest and against that of Germany. First, there was the attempt at an alliance between France, the United States and Great Britain, which failed in 1920, the establishment of a sanctions mechanism through the International Blockade Commission in 1921, the mutual assistance treaty which failed in 1924, the Geneva Protocol failed in 1924 to give the League of Nations full powers to arbitrate in the event of conflict and was called into question following British pressure. The 1923 Locarno Treaty secures Germany's western border, it is a treaty made outside the League of Nations, but closely linked. In 1928, there was the Briand-Kellog Pact against war with an optional protocol on the peaceful resolution of mandatory disputes. This pact aims to condemn war as a means of conflict resolution and as an instrument of national policy<ref>Schmitt, Carl, Marie-Louise Steinhauser, and Julien Freund. La Notion De Politique ; Théorie Du Partisan. Paris : Flammarion, 2009. p.91 - 92</ref>. War is outside the rules of international relations despite the fact that there are crises, but this is important for development from the point of view of international law. The Briand Plan of 1930 was intended to create a federal European link, but this did not succeed. There is the failure of the World Conference on Disarmament. Between 1932 and 1934, there was the Geneva Conference on Disarmament in Geneva, which was an effort undertaken by Member States in collaboration with the United States and the Soviet Union, but it was not successful. In 1935, there was an alliance treaty between France and the Soviet Union with a return to the old system. This treaty, which should have ensured France's security, will never be applied. We leave this period with all kinds of problems and in 1933, when National Socialism came to power in Germany, we found ourselves in this constellation.
-= La Société des Nations et la sécurité internationale =
+= The League of Nations and international security =
-[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27343, Dtsch.-Sowjet. Grenz- u. Freundschaftsvertrag.jpg|200px|thumb|Staline et Ribbentrop signant le traité sur la frontière et de l’amitié entre le Reich allemand et l’Union soviétique, le 28 Septembre 1939.]]
+[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27343, Dtsch.-Sowjet. Grenz- u. Freundschaftsvertrag.jpg|200px|thumb|Stalin and Ribbentrop signing the Treaty on the Border and Friendship between the German Reich and the Soviet Union on 28 September 1939.]]
-L’interprétation traditionnelle veut que la Société des Nations ait réussi jusqu’au milieu des années 1930 à repousser les agressions, mais cette positon est faux. La Société de Nations n’a pu trouver de solutions dans le cadre de conflits asymétriques ni dans les années 1920 ni dans les années 1930. Dans les années 1930, le système s’écroule d’abord avec la Manchourie, le conflit du Chaco et avec la crise d’Éthiopie. La conséquence est que Hitler peut facilement détruire ce qu’il reste de la Société des Nations en sortant de la Société des Nations en 1933 ainsi que de la conférence du désarmement, réintroduire la conscription en Allemagne en 1935, la remilitarisation de la Rhénanie en 1936, l’annexion de l’Autriche en 1938, l’agression contre la Tchécoslovaquie et la Pologne en 1938 et 1939. L’idée des faiseurs de paix s’avère être une chimère en matière de résolution de conflit dans la réalité des faits historiques. Les faits majeurs sont l’absence des États-Unis, la politique d’équilibre menée par les Occidentaux ne correspond pas aux principes du Pacte de la politique d’apaisement des occidents, cela est un échec.
+The traditional interpretation is that the League of Nations succeeded until the mid-1930s in repelling aggression, but this positon is false. The League of Nations was unable to find solutions to asymmetric conflicts in the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1930s, the system collapsed first with Manchuria, the Chaco conflict and the Ethiopian crisis. The consequence is that Hitler can easily destroy what remains of the League of Nations after leaving the League of Nations in 1933 and the Conference on Disarmament, reintroduce conscription in Germany in 1935, the remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936, the annexation of Austria in 1938, the aggression against Czechoslovakia and Poland in 1938 and 1939. The idea of peacemakers turns out to be a chimera for conflict resolution in the reality of historical facts. The main facts are the absence of the United States, the policy of balance pursued by the West does not correspond to the principles of the Pact of the policy of appeasement of the West, this is a failure.
-[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-121-0008-25, Polen, Treffen deutscher und sowjetischer Soldaten.jpg|200px|thumb|Soldats soviétiques et allemands fraternisant après l’invasion de la Pologne, de Brest-Litovsk, 1939 Septembre 20.]]
+[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-121-0008-25, Polen, Treffen deutscher und sowjetischer Soldaten.jpg|200px|thumb|Soviet and German soldiers fraternizing after the invasion of Poland, Brest-Litovsk, 1939 September 20.]]
-Il faut souligner que la naissance des Nations Unies s’est produite comme une alliance étrange entre deux démocraties qui sont les États-Unis et la Grande-Bretagne, mais aussi l’Union soviétique. Cela ne peut être compris qu’avec le contexte de la Seconde guerre mondiale et dans l’immédiat d’après-guerre. Ce concept ne passe que par le fait que les Nations Unies sont à l’origine des alliances militaires contre les forces de l’Axe. En 1939, par la signature du traité de non-agression à savoir le pacte germano-soviétique dit aussi le pacte Molotov–Ribbentrop, est le pacte où l’Union soviétique et l’Allemagne de Hitler se partagent des zones d’influences en Europe centrale et orientale. Ce pacte donne main libre à Hitler pour déclencher la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, c’est un pacte étonnant puisque les soviétiques et les nazis étaient opposés idéologiquement.
+It should be noted that the birth of the United Nations occurred as a strange alliance between two democracies, the United States and Great Britain, but also the Soviet Union. This can only be understood in the context of the Second World War and in the immediate post-war period. This concept requires only that the United Nations is at the origin of military alliances against Axis forces. In 1939, with the signing of the non-aggression treaty, the German-Soviet pact, also known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, was the pact in which the Soviet Union and Hitler's Germany shared areas of influence in Central and Eastern Europe. This pact gives Hitler free rein to start the Second World War, it is an astonishing pact since the Soviets and Nazis were ideologically opposed.
-[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2007- 0127, Russland, Gebirgs-Jäger beim Vormarsch.jpg|thumb|200px|center|Les troupes allemandes traversant la frontière le 22 Juin, 1941 à 2 km à l’ouest de Zabialától.]]
+[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2007- 0127, Russland, Gebirgs-Jäger beim Vormarsch.jpg|thumb|200px|center|German troops crossing the border on June 22, 1941, 2 km west of Zabialától.]]
-En 1941, l’Allemagne nazie déclenche avec l’opération Barbarossa une offensive contre l’armée soviétique ce qui est une surprise. L’Union soviétique va parvenir à entrer dans l’alliance avec les alliés et en Juin 1941. Les États-Unis étaient neutres, mais parce qu’il y avait une prise de position forte du président Roosevelt contre les forces de l’Axe, en 1937 il y avait eu le discours la quarantaine, d’autant plus que les États-Unis ont mis en place le plan lend and lease pour soutenir l’effort de guerre britannique. Roosevelt était convaincu de la nécessité d’une organisation mondiale pour le maintien de la paix. En janvier 1941, il s’est présenté contre le totalitarisme dans le discours State of de Union Address à travers lequel il a formulé Quatre libertés qui sont la liberté d’expression, la liberté de religion, la liberté de vivre à l’abri du besoin et la liberté de vivre à l’abri de la peur.
+In 1941, Nazi Germany launched an offensive against the Soviet army with Operation Barbarossa, which was a surprise. The Soviet Union will succeed in entering the alliance with the allies and in June 1941. The United States was neutral, but because President Roosevelt took a strong stand against the Axis forces, in 1937 there was a speech in the forties, especially since the United States put in place the lend and lease plan to support the British war effort. Roosevelt was convinced of the need for a global peacekeeping organization. In January 1941, he presented himself against totalitarianism in the State of Union Address speech in which he formulated Four freedoms: freedom of expression, freedom of religion, freedom from want and freedom from fear.
-= La naissance de l’Organisation des Nations Unies =
+= The birth of the United Nations =
-== La Charte de l’Atlantique et la Déclaration des Nations Unies ==
+== The Atlantic Charter and the United Nations Declaration ==
 [[File:Prince of Wales-5.jpg|thumb|200px|Roosevelt and Churchill aboard ship.]]
-En aout 1941, les libertés fondamentales ont été inscrites et complétées dans la Charte de l’Atlantique entre la Grande-Bretagne et les États-Unis. C’est une rencontre qui a lieu sur un navire de guerre au large de Terre Neuve entre Roosevelt et Churchill.
+In August 1941, fundamental freedoms were enshrined and supplemented in the Atlantic Charter between Great Britain and the United States. It is a meeting that takes place on a warship off Newfoundland between Roosevelt and Churchill.
 {{citation bloc|The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world|Atlantic Charter, August 14, 1941}}
-Il s’agit de points très forts, mais que les États-Unis ne sont pas encore prêts à suivre étant donné qu’ils ne sont pas en guerre.
+These are very strong points, but the United States is not yet ready to follow because it is not at war.
-Le premier point dit {{citation|their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other}}. Les alliés s’engagent à ne pas annexer de territoires. Le second point dit {{citation|they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned}}. C’est le principe de l’autodétermination des peuples. Le troisième point dit {{citation|they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them}}. Ce point est explosive si on l’interprète du fait que les Dominons de l’Empire britannique pourraient lire qu’ils peuvent choisir leur forme de gouvernement. Le quatrième point dit que {{citation|they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity}}. Il est cherché à ne pas faire les mêmes fautes qu’à Versailles. C’est le principe du libre-échange qui est un principe libéral.
+The first point says {{citation|their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other}}. Les alliés s’engagent à ne pas annexer de territoires. The second point says {{citation|they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned}}. This is the principle of the self-determination of peoples. The third point says {{citation|they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them}}. This point is explosive if we interpret it as meaning that the Dominions of the British Empire could read that they can choose their form of government. The fourth point states that {{citation|they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity}}. It is intended not to make the same mistakes as at Versailles. It is the principle of free trade that is a Liberal principle.
-[[Image:Atlantic Charter (color).jpg|left|220px|thumb|Document contenant les clauses de la charte.]]
+[[Image:Atlantic Charter (color).jpg|left|220px|thumb|Document containing the clauses of the charter.]]
-Avec le cinquième point qui dit {{citation|they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security}}, la question sociale est mise en avant étant une sorte de contre-mesure à ce qui va être mis en place durant la Guerre froide. Le sixième point stipule que {{citation|after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want}}. Le président américain montre qu’il a exploité tous ses moyens et est de facto en guerre. Le fait que l’attaque de Pearl Harbour a joué dans l’entrée en guerre des États-Unis a déterminé l’entrée en guerre des États-Unis contre le Japon. Le septième point {{citation|such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance}} rappelle la liberté des mers. Le huitième point {{citation|they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments}} est le passage qui touche à la création des Nations Unies, mais de manière très vague. Le concept de désarmement doit être poussé par les grandes puissances en attendant la mise en place d’un système plus large et permanent de sécurité général. Ces points vont trouver leur aboutissement dans la Charte de l’ONU.
+With the fifth point that says {{citation|they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security}}, the social question is put forward as a kind of countermeasure to what will be put in place during the Cold War. The sixth point states that {{citation|after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want}}. The American President shows that he has used all his means and is de facto at war. The fact that the attack on Pearl Harbour played a role in the United States' entry into the war determined the United States' entry into the war against Japan. The seventh point {{citation|such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance}} reminds us of the freedom of the seas. The eighth point {{citation|they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments}} is the passage that touches on the creation of the United Nations, but in a very vague way. The concept of disarmament must be pushed forward by the major powers pending the establishment of a broader and permanent system of general security. These points will be reflected in the UN Charter.
-Roosevelt se montre comme l’initiateur de la Charte et Churchill rentre au Royaume-Uni en héros. Churchill avait peur que le principe de la Charte soit mal reçu dans les colonies britanniques. C’est surtout le point trois qui avait un potentiel disruptif vis-à-vis de l’Empire. Churchill voulait une nouvelle organisation internationale à l’image de la Société des Nations. En 1941, la mesure n’était pas en mesure de s’imposer militairement et politiquement aux États-Unis. La Charte de l’Atlantique décrit l’ordre d’après guerre comme une période de paix et de sécurité sociale parce qu’il y a la peur de l’attractivité du communisme après la fin de la guerre. La Charte ne mentionne seulement la nouvelle organisation internationale que l’on veut établir.
+Roosevelt showed himself to be the initiator of the Charter and Churchill returned to the United Kingdom as a hero. Churchill was afraid that the principle of the Charter would not be well received in the British colonies. It was especially point three that had disruptive potential towards the Empire. Churchill wanted a new international organization that would reflect the League of Nations. In 1941, the measure was not in a position to impose itself militarily and politically in the United States. The Atlantic Charter describes the post-war order as a period of peace and social security because there is fear of the attractiveness of communism after the end of the war. The Charter only mentions the new international organization that is to be established.
-En septembre 1941, il y a une déclaration interalliée et différents États se sont ralliés au principe de la Charte de l’Atlantique dont l’Union soviétique. Les pays alliés contre le nazisme acceptent cette charte.
+In September 1941, there was an Allied Declaration and various states joined the principle of the Atlantic Charter, including the Soviet Union. The countries allied against Nazism accept this charter.
-La situation internationale change brusquement après l’attaque de Pearl Harbour. En décembre 1941, cela provoque l’entrée en guerre des États-Unis et marque la naissance des véritables alliés. À partir de ce moment, ceux qui ont signé la Charte forment une véritable alliance militaire contre un ennemi clair que sont les puissances de l’Axe. La Charte de l’Atlantique devient une ligne directrice pour la coalition antihitlérienne. C’est sur cette base que le 1er janvier 1942, 26 États signent la déclaration des Nations Unies. Ce sont les nations qui se sont unies en tant que coalition de guerre contre l’Allemagne. Jusqu’en 1945, à ces 26 États vont s’ajouter 19 États supplémentaires. Les États qui ont signé cette déclaration sont considérés comme membres fondateurs de l’ONU comme stipulé à l’article 3 de la Charte de l’ONU. Fondamentalement, il s’agissait de vaincre ensemble les forces de l’Axe et éviter de conclure une paix séparée. Les Nations Unies ne vont pas faire de paix séparée avec l’Allemagne.
+The international situation changed abruptly after the attack on Pearl Harbour. In December 1941, this caused the United States to enter the war and marked the birth of the true allies. From that moment on, those who signed the Charter formed a real military alliance against a clear enemy, the Axis powers. The Atlantic Charter became a guideline for the anti-Hitler coalition. It is on this basis that on 1 January 1942, 26 States signed the United Nations Declaration. It is the nations that have united as a war coalition against Germany. Until 1945, 19 additional states were added to these 26 states. The States that have signed this declaration are considered as founding members of the United Nations as stipulated in Article 3 of the UN Charter. Basically, it was a question of defeating the Axis forces together and avoiding concluding a separate peace. The United Nations is not going to make a separate peace with Germany.
-Du point de vue du contenu, la déclaration ne stipule aucune indication concrète vis-à-vis de l’ordre de l’après-guerre. C’était une astuce des États-Unis de laisser cette Charte ouverte afin d’éviter des questions et des problèmes concrets et ainsi de ne pas mettre en danger l’Alliance de guerre. Les débuts de l’ONU sont de manière claire et nette une alliance de guerre.
+From the point of view of content, the declaration does not stipulate any concrete indications with regard to the post-war order. It was a trick of the United States to leave this Charter open in order to avoid concrete questions and problems and thus not to endanger the War Alliance. The beginnings of the UN are clearly and clearly a war alliance.
-== L’UNRRA ==
+== THE UNRRA ==
-Dans cette conception d’Alliance de guerre, l’UNRRA joue un rôle fondamental. Cette organisation est fondée en novembre 1943. Son but était de pourvoir nourriture, huile, vêtements, logis et autres besoins de base aux victimes de la guerre. L’UNRRA était une organisation internationale classique basée sur une convention signée entre plusieurs États. L’UNRRA a durablement marqué l’ordre d’après-guerre. Dans une première phase, quarante États faisaient partie de l’UNRRA montant jusqu’à 51 à la fin de la guerre.
-Dans sa période la plus active, l’UNRRA avait environ 20 000 employés. L’ONU va atteindre ce nombre seulement en 1977. L’organisation était financée largement par les États-Unis. Excepté ses fonctions militaires, elle avait aussi la fonction civile de protéger les pouvoirs dans les territoires conquis. L’UNRRA a fait son ouvrage en se basant toujours sur les Quatre libertés. Bien que l’UNRRA était conçue comme mondiale et autonome, elle avait des liens avec la Société des Nations. Les bénéficiaires principaux étaient la Chine, la Tchécoslovaquie, la Grèce, l’Italie, la Pologne, l’Ukraine et la Yougoslavie.
+In this conception of a War Alliance, UNRRA plays a fundamental role. This organization was founded in November 1943. Its purpose was to provide food, oil, clothing, shelter and other basic needs to the victims of the war. UNRRA was a classic international organization based on an agreement signed between several States. UNRRA had a lasting impact on the post-war order. In a first phase, forty states were part of UNRRA, rising to 51 at the end of the war.
-Le principe était que les États puissants assuraient le maintien de la paix pendant que les autres procèderaient au désarmement. C’est une collectivité d’États désarmés avec une force policière internationale. Churchill remettait en cause le rôle de la Chine et celui de l’Union soviétique. Churchill voulait donner un rôle important aux petits États. En 1943, Churchill s’est opposé à Roosevelt proposant trois conseils régionaux avec à la tête de chacun une grande puissance. Les différentes conférences vont mener à créer les Nations Unies.
+In its most active period, UNRRA had about 20,000 employees. The UN will only reach this number in 1977. The organization was largely funded by the United States. Apart from her military duties, she also had the civilian function of protecting powers in the conquered territories. UNRRA has done its work always based on the Four Freedoms. Although UNRRA was conceived as global and autonomous, it had links with the League of Nations. The main beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, Ukraine and Yugoslavia.
-== Plan pour l’après-guerre ==
+The principle was that powerful states would maintain peace while others would disarm. It is a community of disarmed states with an international police force. Churchill questioned the role of China and the Soviet Union. Churchill wanted to give an important role to small states. In 1943, Churchill opposed Roosevelt proposing three regional councils with a great power at the head of each. The various conferences will lead to the creation of the United Nations.
-Le 30 octobre 1943, il y a la déclaration de Moscou dit aussi des Quatre Nations. La Grande-Bretagne, va renoncer au concept régional qui était l’idée de se partager le monde dans des sphères d’influence. La Grande-Bretagne cherche à trouver une sphère d’influence, mais doit désormais la partager avec les deux grandes puissances émergentes. En plus, elle a dû accepter la Chine dans le cercle des grandes puissances. L’idée était de fonder une organisation pacifique. C’est la conférence de Téhéran de 1943 qui a clarifié quelques questions fondamentales concernant la nouvelle organisation qu’il fallait créer. Churchill, Roosevelt et Staline se sont mis d’accord pour fonder une organisation mondiale universelle. Suite à cela, les États-Unis ont pris l’initiative de mettre au point des propositions concrètes. C’est là que se mettent en place du point de vue conceptuel les Nations Unies. De base, en 1943, il y a une clarté de comment organiser l’ONU après la guerre.
+== Post-war plan ==
-En 1944, les propositions de fonder l’ONU sont établies lors de la conférence de Dumbarton Oax. Il était prévu que la Société des Nations ne pourrait plus avoir sa place dans le nouvel ordre mondial parce qu’elle ne pouvait plus remplir son rôle de manière satisfaisante et d’autre part parce que l’Union soviétique et les États-Unis n’en étaient pas membre. Pour l’Union soviétique, cette organisation était impérialiste, et les États-Unis par leur refus d’adhésion avaient affaibli la Société des Nations. Il était important de repartir avec une nouvelle organisation. Les structures de l’ONU ne sont pas fondamentalement différentes de celle de la Société des Nations avec une Assemblée, un Conseil et un Secrétariat, à cela s’ajoute une Cour de justice internationale. L’ONU devait être dotée d’un contingent de troupes pour maintenir la paix étant une rupture avec la Société des Nations, le droit de véto est aboli pour l’Assemblée. L’ONU donne plus de poids aux grandes puissances. À Dumbarton Oax, il y a eu des modifications minimums, mais cette conférence va mener à celle de San Francisco. Cela empêchait les grandes puissances de se soustraire à leur devoir. Le fait que les grandes puissances ont plus de poids les oblige à prendre leurs responsabilités.
+On October 30, 1943, there was the Moscow Declaration also known as the Four Nations. Great Britain will renounce the regional concept that was the idea of sharing the world in spheres of influence. Britain is seeking to find a sphere of influence, but must now share it with the two major emerging powers. In addition, it had to accept China into the circle of great powers. The idea was to found a peaceful organization. It was the 1943 Tehran conference that clarified some fundamental questions about the new organization that needed to be created. Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin agreed to found a universal world organization. As a result, the United States took the initiative to develop concrete proposals. This is where the United Nations is conceptually being set up. From the outset, in 1943, there was clarity about how to organize the UN after the war.
-C’est Roosevelt qui lors de la conférence de Yalta en février 1945 a épuré les dernières différences politiques qu’il y avait et a pu obtenir son désir de faire naitre l’ONU. Le rôle de Roosevelt pendant la guerre est comparable au rôle de Wilson à Paris pendant la Première Guerre mondiale. Grâce au Commonwealth, la Grande-Bretagne pouvait s’assure d’avoir plus de force et de voix puisque tous les dominions pouvaient voter. Avec ce poids supplémentaire, Staline a pu faire passer que la Biélorussie et l’Ukraine étaient admises au sein des Nations Unies en tant que membre indépendant et autonome avec un droit de vote. Staline a aussi limité le droit de véto aux questions de substances. Pendant la conférence de Yalta, il a aussi était décidé de garder en place la pratique des mandats et on cherche à les définir comme des territoires sous l’administration de grandes puissances. Roosevelt voulait agir vite, il fallait surtout utiliser le fait qu’aux États-Unis, l’opinion publique dans l’euphorie de la fin de la guerre était encore positive. Le choix de San Francisco est aussi symbolique pour la conférence fondatrice de l’ONU.
+In 1944, the proposals to found the UN were established at the Dumbarton Oax conference. It was expected that the League of Nations could no longer have its place in the new world order because it could no longer fulfil its role satisfactorily and because the Soviet Union and the United States were not members of it. For the Soviet Union, this organization was imperialist, and the United States' refusal to join had weakened the League of Nations. It was important to leave with a new organization. The structures of the United Nations are not fundamentally different from those of the League of Nations with an Assembly, a Council and a Secretariat, in addition to which there is an International Court of Justice. The UN was to have a contingent of troops to keep the peace being a rupture with the League of Nations, the right of veto is abolished for the Assembly. The UN gives more weight to the great powers. In Dumbarton Oax, there have been minimal changes, but this conference will lead to the San Francisco conference. This prevented the great powers from evading their duty. The fact that the major powers have more weight forces them to take responsibility.
-Roosevelt meurt avant le début de la conférence. Son successeur, Truman, annonce que c’est une absolue priorité. Il y a 45 États participant lors de la Conférence de San Francisco. Ce sont les États qui étaient en guerre contre les puissances de l’Axe. De nombreux pays vont entrer en guerre contre l’Axe à la toute fin de la guerre aussi pour faire partie des membres fondateurs de l’ONU. À San Francisco, il y a un changement en ce qui concerne les « grands » Hommes. Avec la mort de Roosevelt et le départ de Churchill, de la scène politique amène à une discontinuité. Il y a une différence en ce qui concerne la vision de ces politiques mises en place.
+It was Roosevelt who, at the Yalta conference in February 1945, purged the last political differences there were and was able to obtain his desire to create the UN. Roosevelt's role during the war is comparable to Wilson's role in Paris during the First World War. Thanks to the Commonwealth, Britain could ensure that it had more strength and voice because all the dominions could vote. With this additional weight, Stalin was able to make it clear that Belarus and Ukraine were admitted to the United Nations as an independent and autonomous member with voting rights. Stalin also limited the right of veto to questions of substances. During the Yalta conference, it was also decided to keep the practice of mandates in place and to define them as territories under the administration of great powers. Roosevelt wanted to act quickly, it was especially important to use the fact that in the United States, public opinion in the euphoria at the end of the war was still positive. The choice of San Francisco is also symbolic for the founding conference of the UN.
-= La conférence de San Francisco et la Charte =
+Roosevelt died before the conference began. His successor, Truman, announces that this is an absolute priority. There are 45 States participating in the San Francisco Conference. It was the states that were at war with the Axis powers. Many countries will go to war against the Axis at the very end of the war also to be among the founding members of the UN. In San Francisco, there is a change with regard to the "great" Men. With Roosevelt's death and Churchill's departure, the political scene led to a discontinuity. There is a difference in the vision of these policies put in place.
-[[Fichier:UnitedNationsconference.jpg|thumb|Le président Truman lors de la conférence de San Francisco.]]
+= The San Francisco Conference and the Charter =
-Même si cette conférence est dirigée vers l’essai de créer un nouvel ordre mondial, cette conférence se différencie des autres grandes conférences de Westphalie jusqu’en 1919. Madeleine Herren souligne que c’est la première fois qu’un accord de paix avisé mondial est signé dans le cadre des Nations Unies. La Charte était adoptée avant la fin de la guerre. Ce n’est plus l’ancienne logique où la guerre est la continuation de la politique par d’autres moyens. C’est déjà pendant la guerre qu’on essaie de bâtir des principes qui vont marquer le droit international avant la fin de la guerre.
+[[Fichier:UnitedNationsconference.jpg|thumb|President Truman at the San Francisco conference.]]
-La taille de cette conférence était le double de la taille de la conférence de Paris de 1919. À cette conférence participent environ 10 000 personnes, des experts ou encore des diplomates. Ce sont seulement les États qui avaient déclaré la guerre aux forces de l’Axe qui avaient été admises à cette conférence. Il y avait aussi des organisations féministes soutenues par Eleanor Roosevelt qui joue un rôle important à San Francisco, mais aussi pour la déclaration universelle des droits de l’Homme en 1948. Le logo des Nations Unies est un nouveau système de communication au niveau mondial.
+Although this conference was aimed at trying to create a new world order, it was different from the other major Westphalian conferences until 1919. Madeleine Herren points out that this is the first time a wise global peace agreement has been signed within the framework of the United Nations. The Charter was adopted before the end of the war. This is no longer the old logic where war is the continuation of politics by other means. It is already during the war that we are trying to build principles that will mark international law before the end of the war.
-Les discussions les plus difficiles sont la question du Conseil de sécurité et du droit de véto qui était liée au membre du Conseil de sécurité. Il fallait clarifier si le droit de véto pourrait porter sur des questions matérielles et de procédures. L’Union soviétique va demander autre chose que ce qui avait été déclaré pendant la guerre, exigeant que le droit de véto soit applicable aux questions procédurales. La position soviétique va finir par s’imposer au Conseil de sécurité. Cela a influencé le fonctionnement de l’ONU pendant la Guerre froide. Les Soviétiques ont aussi porté la question de la modification de la Charte, il faut les deux tiers de l’Assemblée pour modifier la Charte. C’est le pouvoir que les puissances qui sont dans le Conseil de sécurité se sont accordé.
+The size of this conference was twice the size of the Paris conference of 1919. About 10,000 people, experts and diplomats are attending the conference. Only the states that had declared war on the Axis forces had been admitted to this conference. There were also feminist organizations supported by Eleanor Roosevelt, who plays an important role in San Francisco, but also for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The United Nations logo is a new global communication system.
-L’Amérique latine voulait au mois un siège permanent pour l’Amérique latine, l’Inde demandait que le nombre d’habitants soit pris en compte et le Libéria demandait qu’on suive l’ordre alphabétique chez les membres non permanents afin de garantir l’égalité des chances. Finalement, on dit que la répartition géographique doit être convenablement prise en considération et faire en sorte que les membres défendent la paix mondiale. En 1945, il y avait six membres non permanents. Le nombre de membres a été plus tard adapté pour répondre au nombre croissant de pays notamment après 1960.
+The most difficult discussions are the issue of the Security Council and the veto power that was linked to the member of the Security Council. It needed to be clarified whether the veto could cover substantive and procedural issues. The Soviet Union will ask for something other than what was declared during the war, requiring that the veto right be applicable to procedural matters. The Soviet position will eventually prevail in the Security Council. This influenced the functioning of the UN during the Cold War. The Soviets also raised the issue of amending the Charter, it takes two-thirds of the Assembly to amend the Charter. This is the power that the powers in the Security Council have agreed upon.
-San Francisco est un succès pour la France qui va être admis comme cinquième grande puissance disposant d’un droit de véto et d’un siège au Conseil de sécurité. La Grande-Bretagne voulait disposer d’un partenaire en Europe de l’Ouest pour ne pas se retrouver seule face aux États-Unis au cas où les États-Unis se retiraient et qu’elle devait faire face à l’Union soviétique.
+Latin America wanted at least one permanent seat for Latin America, India asked that the number of inhabitants be taken into account and Liberia asked that the alphabetical order of non-permanent members be followed in order to guarantee equal opportunities. Finally, it is said that geographical distribution must be properly taken into account and ensure that members defend world peace. In 1945, there were six non-permanent members. The number of members was later adapted to meet the growing number of countries, particularly after 1960.
-Le deuxième organe important est l’Assemblée générale. Pendant la conférence de San Francisco, ce sont les petits et les moyens États qui ont tenté de contrebalancer le Conseil de sécurité. Les petits États cherchent à obtenir quelque chose de plus et de ne pas avoir une organisation sous contrôle des grandes puissances. Il y a un compromis aux articles 10 et 11 de la Charte où les grandes puissances disent que les questions de sécurité mondiale et de préservation de la paix peuvent être discutées par l’Assemblée qui peut également fournir des recommandations à l’attention du Conseil de sécurité. C’est un résultat qui va masquer la manière dont l’ONU travaille.
+San Francisco is a success for France, which will be admitted as the fifth major power with veto power and a seat on the Security Council. Britain wanted a partner in Western Europe so that it would not be alone with the United States in case the United States withdrew and it had to face the Soviet Union.
-Les grandes puissances ont pu en grande partie imposer leurs idées formulées à Dumbarton Oax et ont pratiquement dominé la nouvelle organisation. Ce qui était nouveau était que l’ONU pouvait mobiliser ses propres troupes qui vont être nommées plus tard « casque bleu » pour imposer des décisions du Conseil de sécurité. L’histoire des Nations Unies prouve que les structures des organisations nouvellement élaborées se sont relevées en temps de crise aussi plus stables et fonctionnelles que ce que les pessimistes avaient craint pendant leur fondement.. L’ONU arrive a être plus forte que ce que pensaient les pessimistes et moins forte que ce que pensaient les optimistes. L’Italie et l’Autriche sont entrées dans l’organisation en 1955 suivie plus tard par le Japon, et c’est en 1973 que les deux Allemagnes séparées entrent dans l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
+The second important body is the General Assembly. During the San Francisco conference, it was the small and medium-sized states that tried to counterbalance the Security Council. Small states are looking for something more and not to have an organization under the control of the major powers. There is a compromise in Articles 10 and 11 of the Charter where the major powers say that global security and peace preservation issues can be discussed by the Assembly, which can also provide recommendations to the Security Council. This is a result that will mask the way the UN works.
-Pendant la conférence de San Francisco, il y a eu peu de discussions en ce qui concerne le secrétaire général qui est le plus haut fonctionnaire de l’ONU et travail pour tous les organes de l’organisation. Les organes de l’ONU ont une petite différence d’avec ceux de la Société des Nations notamment au niveau du droit de véto qui est l’élément le plus différent entre les deux organisations. En Europe, le siège général est déplacé à New York, mais Genève a pu se sauver comme la demeure du siège européen de l’ONU.
+The major powers were able to largely impose their ideas formulated in Dumbarton Oax and practically dominated the new organization. What was new was that the UN could mobilize its own troops, which would later be called "blue helmets" to impose Security Council decisions. The history of the United Nations shows that the structures of newly developed organizations have recovered in times of crisis as stable and functional as pessimists feared during their foundation... The UN manages to be stronger than pessimists thought and weaker than optimists thought. Italy and Austria joined the organization in 1955, followed later by Japan, and it was in 1973 that the two separate Germanies joined the United Nations.
-Aujourd’hui, il est de soi que le maintien de la paix et les droits de l’Homme soient liés. Ce sont en réalité les États-Unis qui ont proposé l’idée. La délégation américaine se trouvaient face à un dilemme, Roosevelt voulait faire des droits de l’homme un principe central de l’organisation, de l’autre côté, il fallait empêcher que l’ingérence dans les affaires internes américaines pouvait se mettre en marche et éviter que le Senat pouvait rejeter la Charte. Les britanniques ont également mis en garde avec insistance contre l’insertion des droits de l’Homme dans la Charte en vue du fait qu’il n’y avait aucun consensus universel et cela mettait en danger le concept de souveraineté absolue de l’État. Pour les Soviétiques, les droits de l’Homme n’étaient pas une question de premier plan. Finalement, Londres comme Moscou ont voté en faveur de l’introduction des droits de l’Homme dans la Charte pour éviter d’affaiblir le processus.
+During the San Francisco conference, there was little discussion about the Secretary General, who is the most senior UN official and works for all organs of the organization. The organs of the United Nations have a slight difference from those of the League of Nations, particularly in terms of the right of veto, which is the most different element between the two organizations. In Europe, the headquarters is moved to New York, but Geneva was able to save itself as the home of the European headquarters of the UN.
-C’est la conférence fondatrice de San Francisco qui fut décisive pour la conception dans la Charte des droits de l’Homme. L’idée des droits de l’Homme s’est finalement imposée avec la déclaration générale des droits de l’Homme de 1948. Bien que cette déclaration soit restée indicative au niveau juridique, son effet international a été énorme avec un premier pas important vers un consensus universel des valeurs. Bien que cette déclaration ait comporté de nombreuses imperfections, elle a contribué au fait que le consensus de base ne tombe pas en ruine.
+Today, it is self-evident that peacekeeping and human rights are linked. It was actually the United States that proposed the idea. The American delegation faced a dilemma, Roosevelt wanted to make human rights a central principle of the organization, on the other hand, it was necessary to prevent interference in American internal affairs from starting and to prevent the Senate from rejecting the Charter. The British also warned strongly against the inclusion of human rights in the Charter because there was no universal consensus and this jeopardized the concept of absolute state sovereignty. For the Soviets, human rights were not a major issue. Finally, both London and Moscow voted in favour of introducing human rights into the Charter to avoid weakening the process.
+It was the founding conference in San Francisco that was decisive for the conception in the Charter of Human Rights. The idea of human rights finally came to the fore with the 1948 General Declaration of Human Rights. Although this declaration remained legally indicative, its international effect was enormous with an important first step towards a universal consensus of values. Although this statement had many imperfections, it contributed to the fact that the basic consensus did not fall apart.
 = Annexes =
 *Foreign Affairs,. (2015). The American System and the World Organization. Retrieved 24 August 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/americas/1945-10-01/american-system-and-world-organization ({{Wayback|url=https://www. foreignaffairs.com/articles/americas/1945-10-01/american-system-and-world-organization}})
+*“The League of Nations.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 141–142. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703534.
+*Goodrich, Leland M. “From League of Nations to United Nations.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 3–21. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703515.
-= Références =
+= References =
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« The birth of the United Nations » : différence entre les versions