« Production and economic growth » : différence entre les versions
| Ligne 160 : | Ligne 160 : | ||
[[Fichier:Intromacro production role du gouvernement 1.png|549x549px|vignette|centré|Corrélation entre croissance du PIB et taux d’investissement]] | [[Fichier:Intromacro production role du gouvernement 1.png|549x549px|vignette|centré|Corrélation entre croissance du PIB et taux d’investissement]] | ||
2. ''' | 2. '''An increase in the stock of human capital''' increases the productivity of workers. A large part of the human capital stock of individuals is acquired through their training. | ||
In OECD countries, an extra year of education increases people's wages (which, at equilibrium, is equal to their productivity) by about 10%. It also increases the productivity of other workers who also become more productive by combining their human capital → positive externalities. | |||
By providing an efficient and easily accessible education system, the government promotes long-term productivity growth. | |||
Developing countries (DCs), recognizing the importance of human capital and the lack of opportunity for the most disadvantaged groups to access education and health, have begun to introduce systems of subsidies to parents conditional on children's attendance and success in school and medical check-ups (e.g. PROGRESA programme in Mexico). | |||
A potential problem for developing countries linked to the increase in expenditure on education is that a significant proportion of workers then leave with their human capital stock abroad. This phenomenon is called the "brain-drain". | |||
In some Caribbean countries, for example, between 30 and 60% of trained nurses and doctors move to other OECD countries, leading some to question whether their education is a good investment for the government. | |||
A counter-argument is that brain-drain is a positive thing for developing countries because it increases incentives to educate (individuals respond to incentives). | |||
A second counter-argument is that professionals who have emigrated will send remittances to their home countries and therefore part of their income abroad will be spent in the home economy. | |||
Maybe, but this is not always enough: | |||
{{citation bloc|I have at least nine hospitals that have no doctor at all, and 20 hospitals with only one doctor looking after a whole district of 80,000 to 120,000 people|Dr. Agyeman Akosa, Ghana, | {{citation bloc|I have at least nine hospitals that have no doctor at all, and 20 hospitals with only one doctor looking after a whole district of 80,000 to 120,000 people|Dr. Agyeman Akosa, Ghana, Director General of Health.}} | ||
3. ''' | 3. ''''Natural Resources'''. Good stewardship of renewable and non-renewable natural resources is essential for sustainable growth. | ||
The "natural resource curse" is sometimes referred to as the corruption associated with the appropriation of rents generated by the exploitation of natural resources. It is clear that the problem is not the existence of natural resources but corruption itself. Norway (the richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita and very rich in natural resources) is a good counter-example of how one can benefit from natural resource wealth without having problems with corruption. | |||
4. ''' | 4. ''''Technological knowledge'''. They can be encouraged through research and development grant programs (especially in basic research, which has no direct commercial application) and through the development of a good patent system that is efficient and safe for everything patentable. | ||
However, the patent system opens up a debate on very sensitive issues: patents encourage innovation, but also help to keep prices high and create an advantage over other producers (monopoly) → cf. The Economist, 07.07.2007 and 27.08.2009. | |||
Other policies are also important for economic development: | |||
* | * Respect for private property and, more generally, for the law and the legal system (rule of law), which encourage investment in physical capital and the formation of technological knowledge (cf. The Economist, 13.03.2008); | ||
* | * political and macroeconomic stability, which creates an environment conducive to investment and business; | ||
* | * the openness of the economy to the rest of the world, which in principle increases incentives to invest when faced with a larger market. | ||
= Productivité marginale décroissante et convergence = | = Productivité marginale décroissante et convergence = | ||
Version du 26 mars 2020 à 21:54
| Professeur(s) | |
|---|---|
| Cours | Introduction to Macroeconomics |
Lectures
- Introductory aspects of macroeconomics
- Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
- Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- Production and economic growth
- Unemployment
- Financial Market
- The monetary system
- Monetary growth and inflation
- Open Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts
- Open Macroeconomics: the Exchange Rate
- Equilibrium in an open economy
- The Keynesian approach and the IS-LM model
- Aggregate demand and supply
- The impact of monetary and fiscal policies
- Trade-off between inflation and unemployment
- Response to the 2008 Financial Crisis and International Cooperation
What can explain the fact that the average annual income in Norway is USD 76,000 in 2007 (GNP per capita) or USD 60,000 in Switzerland, while a resident of Burundi has an average income of only USD 110?
Why did the difference in GDP per capita between Europe and Asia double in the 18th century to a GDP 15 times greater in Europe than in Asia in 2006?
This chapter on growth and development allows us to sketch an answer to these questions (no development of formal models).
According to Robert Lucas (Nobel Prize in Economics in 1995): "The consequences that the answers to these questions can have for mankind are very great: once we start thinking about them, it is difficult to think about anything else".
See on this subject the podcast on econtalk with Robert Lucas.
Formulas for calculating the GDP growth rate
GDP growth rate between GDP of year 1 and year 2 (in %): Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle \Delta percent GDP_2 = \frac{GDP_2 - GDP_1}{GDP_1} \times 100}
To calculate GDP for the nth year based on a growth rate we uses the same formula as for compound interest:
Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle GDP_n = GDP_1(1 + \gamma)^n}
So if we have a period of n years and we know the GDP at the beginning and at the end of the period, to calculate the average annual growth rate:
Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle \text{Average Annual Growth Rate (AAGR)} = \gamma = \sqrt [ n ]{ GDP_n GDP_1 } - 1}
The rule of 70 (gives an approximation of the relationship between the annual growth rate of GDP per capita and the long-term change in GDP per capita):
Economic growth in the world
Global Economic Growth: A Relatively Recent Phenomenon
Before 1800, the population growth rate was less than 0.1% per year and until 1500, the output growth rate was almost zero.
It was only after 1800 that the population grew strongly and the growth rate of physical capital per capita increased from 0.15% per year between 1500 and 1800 to more than 2% per year in the last century.
Growth in the world
A very small change in the annual growth rate of an economy can turn into a huge difference in the level of GDP after a few generations: see the following table.
In 1900, Argentina had a per capita GDP that was 16% higher than Japan's (USD 1,915 versus USD 1,656 in 2000 dollars after adjusting for inflation between 1900 and 2000).
During the period 1900-2000 Argentina had an average annual growth rate of 1.8% and Japan of 2.8%.
This small difference is transformed into a GDP per capita differential, 100 years later, of around USD 26k in Japan and USD 12k in Argentina: GDP in 2000 in ARG. = and GDP in 2000 in JPN =
Note: Of course, the key statistic for monitoring a country's long-term growth is real GDP per capita, although the press often reports data on the growth rate of real GDP (see The Economist, 13.03.2008).
Purchasing power parity
Is the USD 12k in Argentina in 2000 comparable to the USD 26k in Japan in the same year? Probably not, as the prices of many goods are different in the two countries.
To get an idea of the "quality of life" of individuals in Argentina and Japan and to make international comparisons, GDP per capita must be adjusted by the cost of living in the two countries.
To construct an indicator of the cost of living in different countries, one proceeds in the same way as to construct an indicator of the cost of living in a country at different points in time (cf. CPI).
A standard basket of consumption is constructed (the same everywhere) and its cost is calculated in various countries of the world to construct a purchasing power parity (PPP) index.
PPP correction
The World Bank and the IMF have a joint project for the construction of these indices in developing countries. The OECD does it for developed countries.
Even when corrected by PPP, the differences between countries' per capita GDPs remain striking.
Example of application :
- According to the World Bank, if the cost of living is 1 in the United States, it will be 1.37 in Norway and 0.27 in Burundi in 2007.
- Norway's GDP per capita in PPP is therefore , and Burundi's GDP per capita at PPP is → differences are less significant than if GDP without adjustment is considered, but still extremely large .
Why these huge differences? See next section.
Criticism of the PPP
PPP indices suffer from the same problems as those seen for the CPI (substitution bias, new goods, quality, and heterogeneity of consumption patterns).
And these problems are accentuated by the socio-economic and cultural differences between countries (in reality, consumption baskets are not the same everywhere!).
An alternative to PPP indices that tries to overcome at least some of the problems associated with standard PPP indices is the BigMac index proposed by The Economist: comparison of the price of a BigMac in different countries (takes into account the added value of the goods and services that make up the BigMac price and that are the same everywhere).
Labour productivity
Labour productivity
To understand the differences in per capita income between countries, it is necessary to understand why some countries produce more goods and services per capita than others.
To explain these differences, we will therefore look at the productivity of workers in the different economies.
Labour productivity =
Factors of production
Labour productivity is influenced by the availability of other factors of production (physical capital, human capital, natural resources and technological knowledge) in the economy.
Consider a production function (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle F} ) of total output that depends on several factors of production:
- labour (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle L} ) = the number of working hours employed in production *physical capital (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle K} ) = equipment and infrastructure used in production
- human capital (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle H} ) = knowledge and skills acquired by workers through education, training and experience
- natural resources (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle N} ) = natural inputs, such as land, forests, raw materials, etc.
- technological knowledge (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle A} ) = knowledge of the best possible production methods.
The production function Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle F} describes the relationship between the quantity of inputs used in production and the quantity of output.
Constant returns to scale
Generally it is assumed that the production function shows constant returns to scale (in mathematical terms this means that the function is homogeneous of degree 1) in L, K, H and N => if we double the available quantity of all these inputs, we double the quantity produced (α = 2 at the bottom):
- Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle Y = A \times F(L, K, H, N)} → Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle \alpha Y = A \times F(\alpha L, \alpha K, \alpha H, \alpha N)}
NB: The technology parameter A appears outside the parenthesis. This implies that doubling the level of technological knowledge can double the quantity produced. This parameter is often interpreted by economists as a measure of overall productivity or multifactor productivity. Multifactor productivity is not directly observable; it is a kind of "remainder" or "residual," which is valued as the difference between the % change in GDP and the sum of the % changes in the factors of production under consideration, and which gives us an estimate of the total efficiency of the factors of production.
Determinants of Y/L
By taking α = 1/L and using the homogeneity property of degree 1 (constant returns to scale), we can rewrite the production function:
Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle Y = A \times F(L, K, H, N)} → Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle \alpha Y = A \times F(\alpha L, \alpha K, \alpha H, \alpha N)} → Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle y = \frac{Y}{L} = A \times F(1, \frac{K}{L}, \frac{H}{L}, \frac{N}{L})}
Thus, labour productivity will depend on the relative quantities of other factors of production and the state of technological progress.
The greater the stock of physical and human capital, and the stock of natural resources relative to the number of workers, the greater the capacity to produce Goods & Services in this economy per unit of worker (factor accumulation). The greater the technological knowledge, the higher the labour productivity (technical progress).
Any government policy that helps to increase the stocks of these factors of production or of Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle A} will increase labour productivity and thus lead to faster growth (see below).
Growth in Switzerland
The role of government
1. A higher stock of physical capital can be encouraged through a policy that favours savings rather than current consumption (tax deductions on savings, for example), but also through openness to foreign capital. Growth due to foreign capital investment will be captured only by GDP and not by GNP, but the foreign firm will need labour and B&S offered by nationals. These side effects will be captured by GDP and GNP.
2. An increase in the stock of human capital increases the productivity of workers. A large part of the human capital stock of individuals is acquired through their training.
In OECD countries, an extra year of education increases people's wages (which, at equilibrium, is equal to their productivity) by about 10%. It also increases the productivity of other workers who also become more productive by combining their human capital → positive externalities.
By providing an efficient and easily accessible education system, the government promotes long-term productivity growth.
Developing countries (DCs), recognizing the importance of human capital and the lack of opportunity for the most disadvantaged groups to access education and health, have begun to introduce systems of subsidies to parents conditional on children's attendance and success in school and medical check-ups (e.g. PROGRESA programme in Mexico).
A potential problem for developing countries linked to the increase in expenditure on education is that a significant proportion of workers then leave with their human capital stock abroad. This phenomenon is called the "brain-drain".
In some Caribbean countries, for example, between 30 and 60% of trained nurses and doctors move to other OECD countries, leading some to question whether their education is a good investment for the government.
A counter-argument is that brain-drain is a positive thing for developing countries because it increases incentives to educate (individuals respond to incentives).
A second counter-argument is that professionals who have emigrated will send remittances to their home countries and therefore part of their income abroad will be spent in the home economy.
Maybe, but this is not always enough:
« I have at least nine hospitals that have no doctor at all, and 20 hospitals with only one doctor looking after a whole district of 80,000 to 120,000 people »
— Dr. Agyeman Akosa, Ghana, Director General of Health.
3. 'Natural Resources. Good stewardship of renewable and non-renewable natural resources is essential for sustainable growth.
The "natural resource curse" is sometimes referred to as the corruption associated with the appropriation of rents generated by the exploitation of natural resources. It is clear that the problem is not the existence of natural resources but corruption itself. Norway (the richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita and very rich in natural resources) is a good counter-example of how one can benefit from natural resource wealth without having problems with corruption.
4. 'Technological knowledge. They can be encouraged through research and development grant programs (especially in basic research, which has no direct commercial application) and through the development of a good patent system that is efficient and safe for everything patentable.
However, the patent system opens up a debate on very sensitive issues: patents encourage innovation, but also help to keep prices high and create an advantage over other producers (monopoly) → cf. The Economist, 07.07.2007 and 27.08.2009.
Other policies are also important for economic development:
- Respect for private property and, more generally, for the law and the legal system (rule of law), which encourage investment in physical capital and the formation of technological knowledge (cf. The Economist, 13.03.2008);
- political and macroeconomic stability, which creates an environment conducive to investment and business;
- the openness of the economy to the rest of the world, which in principle increases incentives to invest when faced with a larger market.
Productivité marginale décroissante et convergence
Produit marginal
Sous l’hypothèse de rendements marginaux des facteurs décroissants, la croissance économique n’est pas illimitée si elle est due à l’accumulation d’un seul facteur de production (étant donnés les autres).
Considérons encore une fois la fonction de production agrégée à rendements d’échelle constants : :Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle Y = A \times F(L, K, H, N)} => Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle y = \frac {Y}{L} = A \times F(1, \frac{K}{L}, \frac{H}{L},\frac {N}{L})} .
Le produit marginal du capital (Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle PmK} ) est la quantité supplémentaire de production réalisée par l’économie en utilisant une unité en plus de capital.
Pour des variations discrètes :
- Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle PmK = \frac{\Delta Y}{\Delta K} = \frac{A \times F(K + \Delta K, L, ...) - A \times F(K, L, ...)}{\Delta K}}
Pour des petites variations :
- Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle PmK = \frac{dY}{dK}} (= pente de la fonction de production)
Normalement on considère que, si tous les autres inputs sont constants, la productivité marginale du capital est caractérisée par des rendements marginaux décroissants (= étant donné le niveau des autres inputs, une unité de capital supplémentaire permet d’augmenter la production d’un montant de plus en plus petit → fonction de production croissante mais à des taux décroissants).
Intuition: quand Échec de l’analyse (MathML avec SVG ou PNG en secours (recommandé pour les navigateurs modernes et les outils d’accessibilité) : réponse non valide(« Math extension cannot connect to Restbase. ») du serveur « https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ » :): {\displaystyle K} est bas, la quantité de capital que chaque travailleur a à disposition est petite. En conséquence, une unité additionnelle de capital produit beaucoup d’output supplémentaire. Plus le rapport K/L est élevé, plus la quantité de capital à disposition de chaque travailleur est grande et une unité additionnelle de capital augmente l’output de très peu (= PmK décroissant).
Accumulation vs progrès
NB: une amélioration du progrès technique, A, fait déplacer la fonction de production vers le haut, tandis qu'une accumulation de capital physique se traduit dans un déplacement vers la droite le long de la fonction de production → deux sources de croissance.
Produit marginal et convergence
La productivité décroissante du capital physique (ou humain) implique que: a)lorsqu’on n'accumule que du capital physique, on va avoir une croissance très rapide au départ, mais qui va ralentir au fur et à mesure qu’on continue à accumuler et même, à la limite, s’annuler à long terme → modèle de croissance de Solow, Prix Nobel d’Economie 1987;
b)pour essayer de battre les rendements marginaux décroissants il faut accumuler du capital physique et humain simultanément ou alors avoir un progrès technologique continu.
Une implication importante de a) est que les pays les plus riches (qui ont déjà accumulé pas mal de capital physique), vont croitre plus lentement que les pays les plus pauvres qui ont très peu de capital physique. On parle alors de convergence économique: les pays les plus pauvres rattrapent les plus riches grâce à ce phénomène.
Est-ce qu’on observe ces forces de convergence économique associées aux rendements marginaux décroissants? Oui, mais seulement si on contrôle pour d’autres différences institutionnelles, politiques, et socio-économiques entre les pays.
Convergence : évidence
Ni convergence ni divergence entre les pays du monde: absence de relation entre le PIB per capita en 1960 et la croissance 1960-1985. S’il y avait de la convergence on aurait trouvé une relation négative entre ces deux variables.
Plutôt de la divergence lorsqu’on prend une période plus longue.
Mais on trouve de la convergence lorsqu’on prend des «économies» qui partagent les mêmes institutions politiques et les mêmes conditions socio- économiques (convergence conditionnelle).
Les 48 États des États-Unis : les États qui ont eu une croissance plus élevée dans la période 1979- 1984 sont ceux qui avait le PIB par tête le plus bas initialement.
La convergence ne peut pas tout expliquer, mais si on prend des économies similaires on trouvera de la convergence conditionnelle.
PmL décroissant et les prévisions de Malthus
Une implication importante de b) est qu'une croissance engendrée par l'accumulation d'un seul fdp ne pourra pas être illimitée.
Idée : comme tous les autres fonctions de production, aussi le travail est caractérisé par des rendements marginaux décroissants (si tous les autres inputs et la technologie restent constants, une augmentation du travail ne fait pas augmenter l’output dans le long terme). L’énorme progression démographique du début du 19ème siècle amène Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834) à prévoir une progressive paupérisation de la population, étant le taux de croissance de la population mondiale bien plus élevé que l’augmentation des ressources.
Selon Malthus, avec le progrès technique la population augmente de plus en plus vite jusqu’au point où la quantité de terre et de ressources naturelles par tête diminue, réduisant dès lors la productivité du travail et donc le niveau de vie.
Les prévisions pessimistes de Malthus ont été retardées ponctuellement par la révolution industrielle et par la révolution verte (grande augmentation des ressources et des rendements agricoles). La productivité du travail n’a pas diminué, principalement grâce aux nouvelles technologies et à une meilleure organisation de la production qui ont freiné l’impact de la rareté en ressources naturelles (jusqu’à quand? → croissance durable?). Cf. The Economist, 17.05.2008.
Clé : vitesse du progrès technologique a fortement augmenté depuis 1800 (rappel: la productivité du travail dépend des quantités relatives des autres facteurs de production et du progrès technologique, qui ne sont pas restés constants au cours du temps).
Préoccupations "néo-malthusiennes" et la question environnementale
Retour des préoccupations liées à l'offre limitée des ressources non renouvelables. La plupart des économistes restent optimistes: la rareté des ressources entraine une hausse de leur prix => forte incitation à trouver des alternatives. Mais, nouveauté...
Le problème environnemental: la croissance économique amplifie l'impact des activités humaines sur l'environnement.
- Gestion d'impacts locaux relativement facile (nombreux exemples historiques, e.g. usage du charbon pour le chauffage); gestion d'impacts globaux plus délicate et problématique (coopération internationale + intervention étatique).
- Problème : contrairement à la rareté des ressources, les problèmes environnementaux ne génèrent pas automatiquement d'incitations aux changements (fortes externalités négatives) → intervention publique indispensable.
- Questions ouvertes et incertitudes: Quelle baisse de croissance est-on prêt à accepter? Quel est l'ampleur du changement climatique? ...
Summary
There is a big difference in per capita income levels around the world and their growth.
Income in the richest economy in the world (Norway) is more than 100 times higher than in the poorest economy (Ethiopia) when measured in terms of GDP per capita. And a little less when corrected for PPP.
A small difference in the annual growth rate can result in large differences in income levels over the long term.
The standard of living in an economy will depend on its ability to produce goods and services.
And its ability to produce goods and services will depend on its labour productivity.
Labour productivity in turn depends on the amount of physical capital, human capital, natural resources and technological knowledge available to workers.
Government can affect the growth rate of an economy in a number of ways. The objective will always be to increase the productivity of workers by increasing the stock of physical capital, human capital, natural resources or technological knowledge available to workers.
The accumulation of physical (and human) capital will be subject to diminishing marginal returns.
This implies that by accumulating physical capital through investment, the growth rate will increase rapidly at the outset, but the rate of growth will slow down as one continues to accumulate physical capital.
There should therefore be a phenomenon of economic convergence whereby the poorest countries (which have accumulated little capital to date) will grow faster than the richer countries with a lot of capital.
- But this phenomenon of economic convergence is only observed in countries where political institutions and other socio-economic characteristics are similar. This is known as conditional convergence.
Annexes
References
- Robert Lucas sur la croissance économique : http://www.econtalk.org/archives/2007/02/lucas_on_growth.html
- L’indice de PPA de la Banque Mondiale : http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ICPEXT/Resources/ICP_2011.html
- Pour ceux qui devaient être intéressés au cas de la Suisse: La politique de croissance 2008-2011, La Vie Economique, 04.2008
- Order in the jungle, The Economist, 13.03.2008_a
- Grossly distorted picture, The Economist, 13.03.2008_b
- Malthus, the false prophet, The Economist, 17.05.2008
- A gathering storm, The Economist, 07.07.2007
- Reds under our meds, The Economist, 27.08.2009
- http://www.econtalk.org/archives/2007/02/lucas_on_growth.html
- ↑ Page personnelle de Federica Sbergami sur le site de l'Université de Genève
- ↑ Page personnelle de Federica Sbergami sur le site de l'Université de Neuchâtel
- ↑ Page personnelle de Federica Sbergami sur Research Gate
- ↑ Researchgate.net - Nicolas Maystre
- ↑ Google Scholar - Nicolas Maystre
- ↑ VOX, CEPR Policy Portal - Nicolas Maystre
- ↑ Nicolas Maystre's webpage
- ↑ Cairn.ingo - Nicolas Maystre
- ↑ Linkedin - Nicolas Maystre
- ↑ Academia.edu - Nicolas Maystre