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The evolution of law and the formation of the modern state is a complex, multi-layered process, intimately linked to the history and culture of societies. The modern state, as we know it, began to take shape around three centuries ago, marking a major turning point in the management of political power. This period was characterised by the centralisation of power, the clear demarcation of national borders, and the establishment of structured government institutions. At the same time, public law emerged as a distinct area of law, governing the relationship between the state and its citizens as well as the functions of the state itself, including constitutional, administrative, fiscal and criminal law.
法律的演变和现代国家的形成是一个复杂、多层次的过程,与社会的历史和文化密切相关。我们所熟知的现代国家大约在三个世纪前开始形成,标志着政治权力管理的一个重要转折点。这一时期的特点是权力集中、国界清晰划分以及结构化政府机构的建立。与此同时,公法作为一个独特的法律领域出现了,它规范国家与公民之间的关系以及国家本身的职能,包括宪法、行政法、财政法和刑法。


In contrast to public law, private law has much older roots, dating back more than 2,000 years. It deals with relationships between individuals and covers areas such as contract law, property law, family law and inheritance law. Much of modern private law derives its principles from Roman law, which established legal foundations and concepts that are still relevant today. For example, the concept of contract, central to private law, has its origins in Roman legal practice and theory.
与公法相比,私法的历史要悠久得多,可以追溯到 2000 多年前。私法涉及个人之间的关系,涵盖合同法、财产法、家庭法和继承法等领域。现代私法的许多原则都源自罗马法,罗马法建立的法律基础和概念至今仍然适用。例如,私法的核心概念--合同的概念就起源于罗马的法律实践和理论。


International law, although it has ancient origins, has expanded significantly in recent centuries. It has developed in response to the growing complexity of international relations and world trade. This area of law, which governs relations between states and international organisations, continues to evolve in the face of global challenges such as climate change and human rights. A key example of the evolution of international law is the creation of the United Nations after the Second World War, establishing international standards for peace, security and cooperation.
国际法虽然源远流长,但在近几个世纪中得到了显著发展。它是随着国际关系和世界贸易的日益复杂而发展起来的。这一法律领域规范国家与国际组织之间的关系,面对气候变化和人权等全球性挑战,它仍在不断发展。国际法演变的一个重要例子是第二次世界大战后联合国的成立,为和平、安全与合作制定了国际标准。


The unification of Swiss law in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries provides a concrete example of how legal systems can be harmonised. Eugène Huber, a Swiss jurist, played a crucial role in this process. Drawing on Swiss legal codes and traditions that had evolved over millennia, Huber succeeded in unifying the different cantonal legal systems in Switzerland. His work led to the creation of the Swiss Civil Code, which has become a model of legal codification that has influenced other countries.
十九世纪末二十世纪初瑞士法律的统一为如何协调法律体系提供了一个具体实例。瑞士法学家尤金-胡贝尔(Eugène Huber)在这一过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。根据瑞士几千年来形成的法典和传统,胡贝尔成功地统一了瑞士各州的法律体系。他的工作促成了《瑞士民法典》的制定,该法典已成为影响其他国家的法律编纂典范。


The development of law and the formation of the modern state therefore reflect historical, cultural and social influences throughout the ages. Public, private and international law are the fruit of this evolution, showing how legal systems adapt and develop in response to the changing needs of societies.
因此,法律的发展和现代国家的形成反映了各个时代的历史、文化和社会影响。公法、私法和国际法是这一演变的成果,展示了法律体系如何适应和发展,以应对不断变化的社会需求。


== The influence of the great law-forming traditions ==
== 伟大法律传统的影响 ==
Swiss private law is a fascinating amalgam of historical legal traditions dating back almost two millennia. These traditions have been carefully woven together to form the foundations of the country's modern legal systems, a synthesis emblematically illustrated by the drafting of the Civil Code and the Code of Obligations in 1912. These legislative documents marked a turning point in Swiss legal history, symbolising a significant stage in the unification and modernisation of the country's legal system.
瑞士私法是近两千年历史法律传统的奇妙组合。1912年起草的《民法典》和《义务法典》是这一综合体的典型代表。这些立法文件标志着瑞士法律史上的一个转折点,象征着瑞士法律体系统一和现代化的一个重要阶段。


The influence of Roman law on Swiss legislation is undeniable. Inherited from the Roman Empire, this legal system introduced fundamental concepts such as contracts, property and obligations, which are pillars of modern private law. These ideas, originally formulated in Roman law, have been adapted to meet contemporary needs, but their essence remains deeply rooted in Roman principles. Alongside Roman law, Germanic law has also played a crucial role in shaping the Swiss legal system. Originating with the Germanic tribes, this tradition emphasised local customs and practices, particularly in matters of property and family relations. Germanic law, with its more community-centred approach and local customs, provided an essential counterpoint to the formalisms of Roman law. Canon law, which grew out of the Christian tradition, also influenced Swiss legislation. Although its role is primarily religious, canon law has governed important aspects of civil life, such as marriage. Its influence is a reminder of the historical importance of religion in the formation of European law. Finally, the school of modern law in Switzerland represents the evolution of ancient legal traditions in response to contemporary realities. This school is the product of an adaptation and integration of the principles of Roman, Germanic and canon law, reshaped to meet the social, economic and political challenges of the modern world. This tradition is testimony to the Swiss legal system's ability to evolve and harmoniously integrate various historical influences.
罗马法对瑞士立法的影响是毋庸置疑的。从罗马帝国继承下来的这一法律体系引入了合同、财产和义务等基本概念,这些概念是现代私法的支柱。这些最初在罗马法中提出的理念经过调整以适应当代需要,但其本质仍深深植根于罗马原则。除罗马法外,日耳曼法也对瑞士法律体系的形成起到了至关重要的作用。日耳曼法起源于日耳曼部落,强调当地的习俗和惯例,尤其是在财产和家庭关系方面。日耳曼法以社区为中心,强调当地习俗,与罗马法的形式主义形成了鲜明对比。从基督教传统中发展而来的教会法也对瑞士立法产生了影响。尽管教会法的作用主要是宗教性的,但它也管理着婚姻等民事生活的重要方面。它的影响提醒人们宗教在欧洲法律形成过程中的历史重要性。最后,瑞士的现代法学派代表了古代法律传统在当代现实中的演变。该学派是对罗马法、日耳曼法和教会法的原则进行调整和整合的产物,经过重新塑造以应对现代世界的社会、经济和政治挑战。这一传统见证了瑞士法律体系不断发展并和谐融合各种历史影响的能力。


In short, Swiss private law is the result of a unique fusion of different legal traditions, a combination that has created a legal system rich in history and adapted to the demands of the contemporary world. The Civil Code and the Code of Obligations, drawn up in 1912, embody this synthesis, illustrating how Switzerland has succeeded in creating a coherent and effective legal framework by integrating these diverse heritages.
简而言之,瑞士私法是不同法律传统独特融合的结果,这种融合创造了一个历史悠久并适应当代世界需求的法律体系。1912年制定的《民法典》和《义务法典》体现了这种融合,说明了瑞士是如何通过整合这些不同的传统,成功地创建了一个连贯而有效的法律框架。


= The Roman law =
= 罗马法 =
Rome spanned a period of 1000 years from the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD. The Roman Empire developed a coherent system that applied to all Roman citizens and free men in the Empire. This period encapsulates the rise, heyday and decline of ancient Rome. It was an era that saw Rome evolve from a small city-state to a colossal empire spanning three continents. During this millennium, one of Rome's most significant achievements was the development of its legal system. This system, which emerged gradually, eventually constituted a coherent set of rules and standards applicable to all Roman citizens as well as to free men living in the Empire. This legal framework was crucial to the management of such a vast and diverse empire. The Roman legal system was characterised by innovations such as the concept of civil law, governing relations between citizens, and the law of nations, concerning relations between nations and peoples. These concepts have greatly influenced modern legal systems, particularly in nations following the civil law tradition. One of the most remarkable aspects of Roman law was its universal application within the Empire. Regardless of the ethnic and cultural diversity of the conquered peoples, Roman law provided a common framework that helped to integrate and effectively administer these diverse territories. This universality also contributed to the expansion of Roman influence far beyond its political borders and served as a foundation for the subsequent development of legal systems in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean world. The Roman Empire also saw the emergence of important legal figures, such as the jurists, who interpreted, developed and taught the law. Their writings and teachings formed the basis of what would later become the Corpus Juris Civilis under the emperor Justinian in the sixth century AD, a compilation that strongly influenced the development of Western law. The history of Rome over this thousand-year period is not only one of territorial expansion and military power, but also of an exceptional contribution to the field of law. The Roman legal system, with its principles of universality and equity, laid the foundations of legal practice in the Western world, and its legacy lives on in contemporary legal systems.
罗马从公元前 5 世纪到公元 5 世纪,历时 1000 年。罗马帝国建立了一套适用于帝国所有罗马公民和自由人的统一制度。这一时期概括了古罗马的兴起、鼎盛和衰落。在这个时代,罗马从一个小城邦发展成为横跨三大洲的庞大帝国。在这一千年中,罗马最重要的成就之一是发展了自己的法律体系。这一逐渐形成的体系最终构成了一套适用于所有罗马公民以及生活在帝国的自由人的统一规则和标准。这一法律框架对于管理这样一个庞大而多样化的帝国至关重要。罗马法律体系的特点是创新,如民法概念(规范公民之间的关系)和万民法(涉及国家和民族之间的关系)。这些概念极大地影响了现代法律体系,尤其是在遵循民法传统的国家。罗马法最引人注目的一点是它在帝国内的普遍适用。无论被征服民族的种族和文化如何多样,罗马法都提供了一个共同的框架,有助于整合和有效管理这些不同的领土。这种普遍性也有助于罗马的影响力扩展到其政治边界之外,并为后来欧洲和地中海世界许多地区法律体系的发展奠定了基础。罗马帝国还出现了重要的法律人物,如法学家,他们解释、发展和教授法律。他们的著作和学说为后来公元六世纪查士丁尼皇帝的《民法大全》奠定了基础,这部法律汇编对西方法律的发展产生了重大影响。罗马在这一千年间的历史不仅是领土扩张和军事强盛的历史,也是对法律领域做出卓越贡献的历史。罗马法律体系的普遍性和公平性原则为西方世界的法律实践奠定了基础,其遗产在当代法律体系中依然存在。


Roman law, which has formed the basis of many contemporary legal systems, is characterised by two main features, each of which played a crucial role in the development and sophistication of this ancient legal system.
罗马法是当代许多法律体系的基础,它有两个主要特点,每个特点都对这一古老法律体系的发展和完善起到了至关重要的作用。


On the one hand, Roman law had a strong doctrinal and customary component, which was carefully transposed into writing, known as "ius". This written tradition was fundamentally based on the interpretation and analysis of Roman jurists, whose work shaped and refined the law over time. These jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian, and Justinian, not only interpreted existing laws but also developed legal principles that influenced the practice of law well beyond the Roman era. Their influence is particularly evident in the compilation of the Corpus Juris Civilis under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. In addition to doctrine, Roman customary law, made up of the customs and practices of the citizens of Rome, was gradually codified, enabling the law to be applied uniformly and systematically throughout the Empire. On the other hand, the decisions of the Emperor and the actions of the organs of the Republic played an essential role in the evolution of Roman law. Under the Empire, emperors had the power to issue edicts and decrees that had the force of law. These imperial declarations, or "constitutiones", could modify or establish new legal norms, playing a crucial role in responding to the changing needs of the Empire. Before the imperial era, during the Republic, institutions such as the Senate and the People's Assemblies also had a significant impact on the creation of law. The laws passed by these bodies, known as "leges", were another fundamental component of the legal framework.
一方面,罗马法具有很强的理论和习惯成分,这些成分被小心翼翼地转化为书面形式,即所谓的 "ius"。这种书面传统从根本上说是以罗马法学家的解释和分析为基础的,他们的工作随着时间的推移塑造并完善了法律。这些法学家,如盖乌斯、乌尔比安和查士丁尼,不仅解释了现有的法律,还制定了影响法律实践的法律原则,其影响远远超出了罗马时代。他们的影响在 6 世纪查士丁尼皇帝编纂的《民法大全》中尤为明显。除学说外,由罗马公民的习俗和惯例组成的罗马习惯法也逐渐被编纂成法典,使法律能够在整个帝国统一、系统地适用。另一方面,皇帝的决定和共和国机关的行动在罗马法的演变过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。在帝国时期,皇帝有权发布具有法律效力的诏书和法令。这些帝国宣言或 "宪法 "可以修改或建立新的法律规范,在应对帝国不断变化的需求方面发挥着至关重要的作用。在帝国时代之前的共和国时期,参议院和人民议会等机构也对法律的制定产生了重要影响。这些机构通过的法律被称为 "leges",是法律框架的另一个基本组成部分。


The interaction between the written and doctrinal tradition and imperial and republican decisions created a rich and dynamic legal system. This system not only governed everyday life in the Roman Empire, but also laid the foundations for the development of Western law. The principles and structures developed in Roman law, such as the concept of contract, property rights, and the foundations of criminal law, continue to exert a profound influence on modern legal systems, particularly those following the civil law tradition. This Roman heritage is a testament to the law's ability to adapt and evolve, while retaining continuity and coherence across the centuries.
成文法和教义传统与帝国和共和国的决定之间的互动创造了一个丰富而充满活力的法律体系。这一体系不仅管理着罗马帝国的日常生活,也为西方法律的发展奠定了基础。罗马法中发展起来的原则和结构,如契约概念、财产权和刑法基础,继续对现代法律体系,尤其是遵循大陆法系传统的法律体系产生着深远的影响。罗马法的这一遗产证明了法律具有适应和发展的能力,同时又保持了跨世纪的连续性和一致性。


The shaping of Roman law around the 5th century represents a key moment in the history of Western law. This period saw the official codification of Roman laws and legal principles, a crucial process for the preservation and transmission of the Roman legal heritage. One of the most significant events of this period was the codification of law under Emperor Theodosius II in 438. The Code of Theodosius, or "Codex Theodosianus", was a major achievement. It brought together and organised the edicts, decrees and laws promulgated by the Roman emperors since the reign of Constantine I. This codification was essential for unifying and clarifying Roman law, which had developed considerably and sometimes haphazardly over the previous centuries. The Codex Theodosianus had a lasting impact not only in the Eastern Roman Empire, where Theodosius reigned, but also in the Western Roman Empire. It served as a legal reference for emperors and courts of justice, and influenced the subsequent development of law in the Byzantine Empire as well as in the barbarian kingdoms that succeeded the Roman Empire in the West.
5 世纪前后罗马法的形成是西方法律史上的一个关键时刻。在这一时期,罗马法律和法律原则被正式编纂成法典,这是保存和传承罗马法律遗产的关键过程。这一时期最重要的事件之一是狄奥多西二世皇帝于 438 年编纂法律。狄奥多西法典》或《狄奥多西法典》是一项重大成就。它汇集并整理了自君士坦丁一世统治以来罗马皇帝颁布的诏书、法令和法律。这种编纂对于统一和澄清罗马法律至关重要,因为罗马法律在过去几个世纪中得到了长足的发展,有时甚至是杂乱无章的。狄奥多西法典》不仅在狄奥多西统治的东罗马帝国,而且在西罗马帝国都产生了持久的影响。它为皇帝和法院提供了法律参考,影响了拜占庭帝国以及继承西方罗马帝国的蛮族王国后来的法律发展。


The codification of law under Theodosius II was a crucial step in the transition of Roman law from a system based primarily on tradition and custom to a more formally structured and codified system. This transformation led to a better understanding and application of Roman law, and laid the foundations for further codification efforts, notably the Corpus Juris Civilis commissioned by the emperor Justinian in the sixth century. The codification of Roman law in the 5th century, particularly under Theodosius II, marked an important stage in the history of law. It made it possible to preserve the Roman legal heritage and pass it on to future generations, significantly influencing contemporary Western legal systems.
狄奥多西二世时期的法律编纂是罗马法律从主要基于传统和习俗的体系向结构更为正式的法典化体系过渡的关键一步。这一转变使人们对罗马法有了更好的理解和应用,并为进一步的编纂工作奠定了基础,特别是查士丁尼皇帝在六世纪委托编纂的《民法大全》。5 世纪罗马法的编纂,尤其是狄奥多西二世时期的编纂,标志着法律史上的一个重要阶段。它使罗马法律遗产得以保存并传承给后代,对当代西方法律体系产生了重大影响。


The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 marked a major historical turning point, not only politically and socially, but also in terms of legal development. While the Western Empire collapsed, the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to prosper. It was against this backdrop that Emperor Justinian I, one of the most influential emperors of the Byzantine Empire, undertook one of the most ambitious legal initiatives in history: the creation of the Justinian Code. Reigning in the 6th century, Justinian saw the importance of reforming and systematising Roman law, which at the time was scattered across numerous texts, edicts and decrees that were often contradictory or obsolete. Between 529 and 534, he and his team of jurists, under the direction of Tribonian, set about compiling, revising and organising these laws. This monumental work culminated in the creation of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or "Body of Civil Law", a body of work comprising the Code (Codex), the Digest (Digesta or Pandectae), the Institutes (Institutiones) and the Novelles (Novellae Constitutiones).
西罗马帝国于 476 年灭亡,不仅在政治和社会方面,而且在法律发展方面都标志着一个重大的历史转折点。在西罗马帝国崩溃的同时,东罗马帝国,即后来的拜占庭帝国,继续繁荣发展。正是在这种背景下,拜占庭帝国最有影响力的皇帝之一查士丁尼一世采取了历史上最雄心勃勃的法律举措之一:制定《查士丁尼法典》。查士丁尼在位时是 6 世纪,他看到了改革和系统化罗马法的重要性,当时的罗马法散见于众多文本、诏书和法令中,往往相互矛盾或已经过时。529 至 534 年间,他和他的法学家团队在特里波尼安的指导下,着手编纂、修订和整理这些法律。这项不朽的工作最终促成了《民法典》(Corpus Juris Civilis)或 "民法体系 "的诞生,该体系由《法典》(Codex)、《摘要》(Digesta 或 Pandectae)、《制度》(Institutiones)和《新宪法》(Novellae Constitutiones)组成。


The Codex Justinianus brought together the existing imperial constitutions. The Digest was a compilation of opinions and rulings by renowned Roman jurists. The Institutes served as an introductory law textbook for students, and the Novelles included new laws enacted after 534. The importance of Justinian's Code lies in its systematisation of Roman law and its lasting impact on legal development in Europe. It served as the basis for civil law in many European countries and influenced legal systems worldwide. Even after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Corpus Juris Civilis continued to be studied and used as a legal reference in Western Europe, playing a key role in the legal Renaissance and the formation of modern legal systems. Thus, while the Western Roman Empire was collapsing, the legacy of Roman law was being preserved and revitalised in the Byzantine Empire. Justinian's Code is a testament to the perseverance and resilience of the Roman legal heritage, and remains one of the most significant contributions to legal theory and practice in world history.
查士丁尼法典》汇集了现有的帝国宪法。文摘》汇集了罗马著名法学家的观点和裁决。宪法》是学生的法律入门教科书,《新宪法》则收录了 534 年后颁布的新法律。查士丁尼法典》的重要性在于其对罗马法的系统化及其对欧洲法律发展的持久影响。它是许多欧洲国家民法的基础,并影响了全世界的法律体系。即使在 1453 年君士坦丁堡陷落之后,《民法大全》在西欧仍被作为法律参考资料加以研究和使用,在法律文艺复兴和现代法律制度的形成过程中发挥了关键作用。因此,在西罗马帝国崩溃的同时,罗马法的遗产却在拜占庭帝国得到了保存和复兴。查士丁尼法典》证明了罗马法律遗产的坚忍不拔和顽强不屈,至今仍是世界历史上对法律理论和实践最重要的贡献之一。


Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a major reform of Roman law was undertaken in the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire. Under the leadership of Emperor Justinian in the sixth century, this reform led to the creation of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or Justinian Code, which represents a monumental effort in the preservation and systematisation of Roman law. The Corpus Juris Civilis begins with the Codex Justinianus, which brings together the imperial constitutions - essentially the decisions and edicts of the emperor. This compilation replaces the earlier Theodosian Code and centralises all the imperial laws from the time of the emperor Hadrian. The codex was intended to provide clear, structured access to the laws of the Empire, making them easier to understand and apply. Secondly, the Digest, or Pandectes, forms a crucial part of the Corpus. It is a vast compilation of extracts from over 1,500 books written by the jurisconsults of classical Rome. This section forms the legal doctrine and represents the accumulated wisdom and interpretations of Roman jurists. The Digest served as a guide for judges and lawyers, providing them with a detailed resource for interpreting and applying the law. For law students, the Institutes offered a basic textbook, presenting the fundamental principles and structures of Roman law in an accessible way. The Institutes played a vital role in legal education, ensuring that legal knowledge was passed on to future generations. Finally, the Novelles, or New Laws, completed the Corpus by including laws promulgated by Justinian after the Codex had been written. These texts reflected the changes and adaptations needed to the law to meet the contemporary needs of the Byzantine Empire. The Corpus Juris Civilis had a profound and lasting impact on the development of law in the Western world. Its compilation not only preserved the legal heritage of ancient Rome but also laid the foundations of civil law in many European countries. The influence of the Corpus extends far beyond the Byzantine Empire, as its principles and methodology have been adopted and adapted in various legal systems over the centuries. Justinian's work thus ensured that Roman legal wisdom would live on, making it accessible and relevant for future generations.
西罗马帝国灭亡后,东罗马帝国(即后来的拜占庭帝国)对罗马法进行了重大改革。在六世纪查士丁尼皇帝的领导下,这一改革导致了《民法大全》(或称《查士丁尼法典》)的诞生,它代表了罗马法在保存和系统化方面的不朽努力。民法大全》以《查士丁尼法典》为开端,汇集了帝国宪法--主要是皇帝的决定和法令。该法典取代了早期的《狄奥多西法典》,集中了哈德良皇帝时期的所有帝国法律。法典旨在提供清晰、有条理的帝国法律,使其更易于理解和应用。其次,《文摘》(或称《法典》)是《法典》的重要组成部分。它是从古典罗马的法学家们撰写的 1,500 多本书中摘录的大量内容。这部分内容构成了法律学说,代表了罗马法学家积累的智慧和解释。文摘》是法官和律师的指南,为他们提供了解释和适用法律的详细资源。对于法律专业的学生来说,《制度汇编》是一本基础教科书,以通俗易懂的方式介绍了罗马法的基本原则和结构。学院》在法律教育中发挥了重要作用,确保法律知识代代相传。最后,《新法》(Novelles)收录了查士丁尼在《法典》成书后颁布的法律,从而完善了《法典》。这些文本反映了为满足拜占庭帝国当代需要而对法律进行的修改和调整。民法典》对西方世界的法律发展产生了深远而持久的影响。它的编纂不仅保存了古罗马的法律遗产,还为许多欧洲国家的民法奠定了基础。法典》的影响远远超出了拜占庭帝国,其原则和方法几个世纪以来被各种法律体系所采用和调整。因此,查士丁尼的著作确保了罗马法律智慧的延续,使后代人能够理解并使用这些智慧。


It was at the beginning of the second millennium that Justinian's texts began to have a significant influence on the Western medieval legal world. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and during subsequent periods, including the High Middle Ages, much of Western Europe lost direct contact with the legal heritage of ancient Rome. However, this situation began to change around the 11th and 12th centuries. The 12th century renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural renewal in Western Europe, played a crucial role in the rediscovery of Justinian's texts. Universities, which began to emerge in cities such as Bologna in Italy, were centres for the study and teaching of Roman law. The University of Bologna, in particular, became a centre of reference for legal studies. Scholars such as Irnerius and his successors, known as the Glossators, analysed, commented on and taught the Corpus Juris Civilis, helping to spread it throughout medieval Europe. During this period, Justinian's texts were translated, interpreted and adapted to meet the legal and social needs of the time. Medieval jurists integrated elements of Roman law into local legal systems, a process that greatly influenced the development of European civil law. This integration contributed to the formation of the first national legal systems in Europe, such as the canon law of the Catholic Church and the various regional customary laws. The beginning of the second millennium marked a period of rediscovery and reintegration of Roman law in Western Europe, with the texts of Justinian playing a central role in this process. This influence laid the foundations for modern legal systems in Europe and made a significant contribution to the history of Western law.
第二个千年伊始,查士丁尼的著作开始对西方中世纪法律世界产生重大影响。西罗马帝国灭亡后,在随后的中世纪(包括中世纪晚期),西欧大部分地区失去了与古罗马法律遗产的直接联系。然而,这种情况在 11 世纪和 12 世纪左右开始发生变化。12 世纪的文艺复兴是西欧知识和文化复兴的时期,它对查士丁尼文本的重新发现起到了至关重要的作用。意大利博洛尼亚等城市开始出现大学,它们是罗马法的研究和教学中心。博洛尼亚大学尤其成为法律研究的参考中心。伊尔内留斯(Irnerius)等学者及其后继者(被称为 "Glossators")对《民法大全》进行了分析、评论和讲授,帮助其在整个中世纪欧洲传播。在此期间,查士丁尼的法典被翻译、解释和改编,以满足当时的法律和社会需求。中世纪的法学家们将罗马法的元素融入当地的法律体系,这一过程极大地影响了欧洲民法的发展。这种融合促进了欧洲第一批国家法律体系的形成,如天主教教会法和各种地区习惯法。第二个千年的开始标志着罗马法在西欧的重新发现和整合时期,查士丁尼的文本在这一过程中发挥了核心作用。这种影响为欧洲现代法律体系奠定了基础,并对西方法律史做出了重大贡献。


= Germanic law =
= 日耳曼法 =
The conquests of the Germanic tribes in the 5th century represented a period of significant transformation for the territory of the former Roman Empire. As these tribes, such as the Franks, Burgundians and others, penetrated and established themselves on Roman territory, they brought with them their own legal systems and customs. This period saw the emergence of a distinct legal tradition: Germanic law.
5 世纪日耳曼部落的征服是前罗马帝国领土发生重大转变的时期。这些部落,如法兰克人、勃艮第人等,在罗马领土上渗透并建立了自己的势力,同时也带来了他们自己的法律制度和习俗。这一时期出现了独特的法律传统: 日耳曼法律。


Unlike the centralised and codified Roman approach to law, the Germanic tribes relied mainly on oral customs and tribal rules. When they invaded and colonised various parts of the Roman Empire, they maintained their own laws. For example, the law of the Franks (known as the Lex Salica) and the law of the Burgundians (Lex Burgundionum) were sets of laws specific to these peoples. These laws governed aspects of daily life and the resolution of conflicts within their communities. At the same time, the Roman populations under Germanic rule continued to live according to Roman laws. This coexistence of distinct legal systems led to a legal duality in many territories: Germanic law for the conquerors and Roman law for the native populations.
与集中化和法典化的罗马法律不同,日耳曼部落主要依靠口头习俗和部落规则。当他们入侵罗马帝国各地并成为殖民地时,他们保留了自己的法律。例如,法兰克人的法律(称为《萨利卡法》)和勃艮第人的法律(《勃艮第法》)就是这些民族特有的法律。这些法律规定了日常生活的方方面面以及社区内冲突的解决方式。与此同时,日耳曼统治下的罗马人继续按照罗马法律生活。这种不同法律体系的共存导致许多地区出现了法律上的双重性: 日耳曼法律适用于征服者,而罗马法律适用于当地居民。


Over time, as they interacted with Roman civilisation, the Germanic peoples began to put their customs down in writing, often using Latin, the language of scholarship and administration at the time. This written formalisation of Germanic customs was an important step in the evolution of their legal system. Not only did it preserve these customs for future generations, it also facilitated their integration with elements of Roman law. This period of European history was therefore characterised by a complex cultural and legal interaction, in which Roman and Germanic traditions influenced each other. The adoption of Latin script to document Germanic laws is an example of this synthesis. Over time, this fusion of legal traditions contributed to the formation of modern European legal systems, blending elements of Roman and Germanic law.
随着时间的推移,随着与罗马文明的交流,日耳曼人开始将他们的习俗写成文字,通常使用当时的学术和行政语言拉丁语。日耳曼习俗的书面化是其法律体系演变的重要一步。它不仅为后代保留了这些习俗,还促进了这些习俗与罗马法元素的融合。因此,这一时期欧洲历史的特点是复杂的文化和法律互动,罗马和日耳曼传统相互影响。采用拉丁字母记录日耳曼法律就是这种融合的一个例子。随着时间的推移,这种法律传统的融合促进了现代欧洲法律体系的形成,其中融合了罗马法和日耳曼法的元素。


In the Roman Empire, particularly around the Mediterranean basin, Roman law had a vast scope and application, extending across the entire Empire. This universality of Roman law contrasts sharply with the approach adopted by the Germanic tribes, where the law was much more personal in character. Roman law, with its codified systems and universal principles, was designed to apply uniformly to all citizens of the Empire, regardless of their ethnic origin or social status. This approach was intended to create a common legal basis and facilitate the administration of such a vast and diverse empire. Roman law governed various aspects of life, ranging from private law (such as family law and contract law) to public law (including administrative and criminal law). Its scope encompassed the entire Mediterranean basin, reflecting the geographical extent and cultural influence of the Roman Empire. The Germanic tribes, on the other hand, practised personal laws. Each tribe, whether Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths or others, had its own set of laws and customs governing the lives of its members. These laws were generally handed down orally and reflected the specific traditions and values of each tribe. Unlike Roman law, Germanic laws were not designed to apply universally, but rather were adapted to the particularities of each group.
在罗马帝国,尤其是在地中海盆地,罗马法的范围和适用性非常广泛,遍及整个帝国。罗马法的这种普遍性与日耳曼部落所采用的方法形成了鲜明对比,后者的法律更具个人特色。罗马法具有成文法体系和普遍原则,旨在统一适用于帝国的所有公民,无论其种族出身或社会地位如何。这种做法的目的是建立一个共同的法律基础,便于管理这样一个庞大而多样化的帝国。罗马法涉及生活的方方面面,从私法(如家庭法和合同法)到公法(包括行政法和刑法)。其范围涵盖整个地中海盆地,反映了罗马帝国的地理范围和文化影响。日耳曼部落则实行属人法。每个部落,无论是法兰克人、勃艮第人、西哥特人还是其他部落,都有自己的一套法律和习俗来管理其成员的生活。这些法律一般都是口口相传,反映了每个部落的特定传统和价值观。与罗马法不同的是,日耳曼法律并不是为了普遍适用而设计的,而是为了适应每个部落的特殊性。


When these Germanic tribes settled in the territories of the former Roman Empire, they retained their individual legal systems. In doing so, they created a situation where different communities within the same territory were governed by different legal systems. For example, a member of a Germanic tribe would be subject to the laws of his tribe, while a native Roman would continue to follow Roman law. This legal duality had important implications for social organisation and the development of legal systems in post-Roman Europe. Thus, the coexistence and interaction of universal Roman law and Germanic personal law played a crucial role in shaping European legal traditions, blending the concepts of universal law and law based on ethnic or tribal identity. This historical synthesis laid the foundations for modern legal systems in Europe, where the tension between universal norms and personalised rights continues to influence legal practice and theory.
当这些日耳曼部落定居在前罗马帝国的领土上时,他们保留了各自的法律体系。这样,他们就造成了同一领土内的不同族群受不同法律体系管辖的局面。例如,日耳曼部落的成员要遵守本部落的法律,而土生土长的罗马人则要继续遵守罗马法律。这种法律上的双重性对罗马帝国之后欧洲的社会组织和法律制度的发展有着重要影响。因此,罗马普遍法和日耳曼属人法的共存和互动在欧洲法律传统的形成过程中发挥了至关重要的作用,将普遍法和基于种族或部落身份的法律概念融为一体。这种历史性的综合奠定了欧洲现代法律体系的基础,在欧洲,普遍性规范和个性化权利之间的紧张关系继续影响着法律实践和理论。


= Canon law =
= 教会法 =
Canon law is a unique legal system that plays a central role in the organisation and governance of the Catholic Church. This system of law is distinct from civil legal systems and focuses specifically on the internal aspects of the Church, as well as the way in which it interacts with its faithful and society in general. Canon law covers a wide range of areas, including the constitution and organisation of the Church, ecclesiastical functions, the status of Church members, and the management of ecclesiastical property. It also regulates aspects such as liturgical processes, sacraments, and disciplinary norms for clergy and laity. This legal system is based on a set of deontological principles derived from Christianity, reflecting the values and teachings of Christianity.
教会法是一种独特的法律体系,在天主教会的组织和管理中发挥着核心作用。这一法律体系有别于民事法律体系,专门关注教会的内部事务,以及教会与信徒和整个社会的互动方式。教会法涵盖的范围很广,包括教会的章程和组织、教会职能、教会成员的地位以及教会财产的管理。它还对礼仪程序、圣礼以及神职人员和教友的纪律规范等方面做出了规定。这一法律体系基于一套源自基督教的义务论原则,反映了基督教的价值观和教义。


A notable feature of canon law is its aspiration to extend to all people, in the sense that it aims to guide not only the internal conduct of the Church, but also to influence morality and ethics in wider society. Although its direct application is limited to members of the Catholic Church, the principles of Canon Law have often had a significant impact on laws and social norms in many societies, particularly in countries with a Christian tradition.
教会法的一个显著特点是它希望扩展到所有人,因为它不仅要指导教会内部的行为,还要影响更广泛社会中的道德和伦理。尽管教会法的直接适用范围仅限于天主教会成员,但其原则往往对许多社会的法律和社会规范产生重大影响,尤其是在具有基督教传统的国家。


Canon law has evolved over the centuries, adapting to changes in society and within the Church itself. Ecumenical councils, papal decrees and the decisions of ecclesiastical tribunals have played an important role in the development and updating of canon law. One of the most significant moments in the evolution of modern canon law was the promulgation of the Code of Canon Law in 1917, revised in 1983, which systematised and updated the legal norms of the Catholic Church.
几个世纪以来,教会法不断演变,以适应社会和教会本身的变化。大公会议、教皇法令和教会法庭的裁决在教会法的发展和更新中发挥了重要作用。现代教会法演变过程中最重要的时刻之一是 1917 年颁布的《教会法典》(1983 年修订),该法典对天主教会的法律规范进行了系统化和更新。


Canon law is an essential part of the structure and functioning of the Catholic Church. It represents a legal tradition which, while distinct from civil legal systems, has had a considerable influence on the moral and ethical development of many societies throughout the world.
教会法是天主教会结构和运作的重要组成部分。它代表了一种法律传统,虽然有别于民事法律制度,但对全世界许多社会的道德和伦理发展产生了相当大的影响。


== First millennium ==  
== 第一个千年 ==  


The transition of the Roman Empire from a predominantly pagan entity to a Christian empire was a pivotal moment in Western history, marked by two important edicts in the fourth century.
罗马帝国从一个以异教为主的实体向基督教帝国的过渡是西方历史上的一个关键时刻,其标志是四世纪的两项重要法令。


The first crucial turning point was the Edict of Milan, promulgated in 313 by Emperors Constantine I and Licinius. This edict was not a legalisation of Christianity, but rather a decree of religious tolerance. It put an end to the persecution of Christians and granted all people in the Roman Empire the freedom to practise their religion. This edict marked a radical change in the Empire's religious policy, giving Christianity legal status and the opportunity to develop and spread freely. The second decisive moment was the Edict of Thessalonica, also known as the Cunctos populos, promulgated in 380 by Emperor Theodosius I. This edict established Nicene Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The edict proclaimed that all Roman citizens had to follow the Christian faith as interpreted by the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, who followed the teaching established by the Council of Nicaea in 325. This meant the end of official religious diversity in the Empire and the establishment of Christianity as the dominant and exclusively state-sanctioned religion.
第一个关键转折点是君士坦丁一世和利西尼乌斯皇帝于 313 年颁布的《米兰敕令》。该诏书不是基督教的合法化,而是一项宗教宽容法令。它结束了对基督徒的迫害,给予罗马帝国所有人信奉宗教的自由。这一法令标志着罗马帝国宗教政策的彻底改变,给予基督教合法地位和自由发展与传播的机会。第二个决定性时刻是皇帝狄奥多西一世于 380 年颁布的《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》,又称《民众敕令》。该法令宣布,所有罗马公民都必须遵循罗马和亚历山大的主教们所解释的基督教信仰,他们遵循的是 325 年尼西亚大公会议所确立的教义。这意味着帝国官方宗教多样性的终结,基督教成为国家认可的主导宗教。


These developments had profound consequences for the religious, cultural and political history of the Roman Empire and Europe in general. The conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity not only changed the religious dynamics of the Empire, but also laid the foundations for the rise of the power of the Church in secular affairs, influencing the formation of European legal, political and social systems in the centuries to come. The transition to a Christian Empire also facilitated the emergence and consolidation of canon law as an influential legal system within the Catholic Church and European society.
这些发展对罗马帝国乃至整个欧洲的宗教、文化和政治历史产生了深远的影响。罗马帝国皈依基督教不仅改变了帝国的宗教动态,还为教会在世俗事务中权力的崛起奠定了基础,影响了未来几个世纪欧洲法律、政治和社会制度的形成。向基督教帝国的转变也促进了教会法的出现和巩固,使其成为天主教会和欧洲社会中具有影响力的法律体系。


The conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity marked a radical transformation in the social and political structure of the time, profoundly affecting the interaction between Church and State. The integration of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, following the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, not only strengthened the position of the Church in Roman society, but also created fertile ground for the mutual influence of Roman law and Church practice. The Church, which had previously operated on the fringes of the official political structure, found itself at the heart of Roman society. This integration had several important implications. Firstly, the Church began to adopt and adapt elements of Roman law to manage its own internal affairs, particularly in the administration of its properties and the regulation of its internal processes. For example, the principles of Roman law concerning property and contracts were integrated into the management of the Church's assets.
罗马帝国皈依基督教标志着当时社会和政治结构的彻底转变,深刻影响了教会与国家之间的互动。380 年《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》颁布后,基督教成为帝国的官方宗教,这不仅加强了教会在罗马社会中的地位,也为罗马法律和教会实践的相互影响创造了肥沃的土壤。教会以前一直在官方政治结构的边缘活动,现在却成为了罗马社会的核心。这种融合产生了几个重要的影响。首先,教会开始采用和调整罗马法的元素来管理自己的内部事务,特别是在管理其财产和规范其内部程序方面。例如,罗马法中有关财产和合同的原则被纳入教会资产的管理中。


At the same time, the development of canon law, influenced by Roman legal principles, marked an important step in the evolution of the Church. This distinct legal system, while based on Christian teachings and scripture, reflected many aspects of Roman law in its structure and application. Canon law became an essential framework for regulating the internal affairs of the Church, including clerical discipline and the practice of the sacraments. In addition, the relationship between Church and State took on a new dimension. The Roman emperors, although exercising primarily temporal authority, often had a significant influence on ecclesiastical matters. Conversely, the Church began to play an influential role in secular affairs, guiding not only spiritual matters, but also influencing social and legal norms. This period of history was therefore characterised by a dynamic interaction between Roman legal and administrative structures and the Church. This synergy laid the foundations for the future development of medieval Europe, shaping the political, social and legal structures of the time. The conversion of the Empire to Christianity was not just a change in religious belief, but also brought about a profound transformation in social and legal organisation, the impact of which can still be felt in contemporary legal and political systems.
同时,受罗马法律原则的影响,教会法的发展标志着教会的演变迈出了重要的一步。这一独特的法律体系虽然以基督教教义和经文为基础,但在其结构和应用方面反映了罗马法的许多方面。教会法成为规范教会内部事务(包括教士纪律和圣事实践)的重要框架。此外,教会与国家之间的关系也有了新的发展。罗马皇帝虽然主要行使世俗权力,但往往对教会事务有重大影响。相反,教会开始在世俗事务中发挥影响,不仅指导精神事务,还影响社会和法律规范。因此,这段历史时期的特点是罗马法律和行政结构与教会之间的动态互动。这种协同作用为中世纪欧洲的未来发展奠定了基础,塑造了当时的政治、社会和法律结构。帝国皈依基督教不仅是宗教信仰的改变,也带来了社会和法律组织的深刻变革,其影响在当代的法律和政治制度中仍可感受到。


The influence of Christianity and Roman law, following the conversion of the Roman Empire, extended far beyond the imperial borders, also impacting the Germanic peoples who converged towards and within the Empire. This period of European history was marked by a complex interaction between Roman and Germanic cultures and legal systems, under the growing influence of Christianity. As Germanic tribes settled in the territories of the Roman Empire, they came into close contact with Roman civilisation and its legal and administrative structures. At the same time, the spread of Christianity, as the official religion of the Empire, began to exert a significant influence on these peoples. Germanic chieftains, often in search of legitimacy and political support, gradually adopted Christianity, which led to changes in their social and legal structures.
罗马帝国皈依基督教后,基督教和罗马法的影响远远超出了帝国疆界,也影响到了日耳曼各族人民,他们向罗马帝国汇聚,并生活在罗马帝国内部。在这一时期的欧洲历史上,罗马文化与日耳曼文化和法律制度之间的互动十分复杂,基督教的影响也日益加深。随着日耳曼部落在罗马帝国境内定居,他们与罗马文明及其法律和行政结构发生了密切接触。同时,基督教作为帝国的官方宗教,其传播开始对这些民族产生重大影响。日耳曼酋长往往为了寻求合法性和政治支持,逐渐信奉基督教,这导致他们的社会和法律结构发生了变化。


The adoption of Christianity by the Germanic peoples was not just a religious transformation, but also involved an adaptation of certain aspects of Roman law and its principles. For example, Germanic laws, which were traditionally handed down orally and based on tribal customs, began to be influenced by Roman legal concepts, particularly with regard to the organisation of property and the management of civil affairs. In addition, the interaction between Christian clerics and Germanic elites facilitated the transmission of Roman legal and administrative knowledge. Clerics, often educated in Roman traditions, played a key role in the administration of the Germanic kingdoms and in the drafting of their laws. This influence contributed to the emergence of mixed legal systems in the Germanic kingdoms, combining elements of traditional Germanic law with those of Roman and canon law. In this way, the influence of Roman law and Christianity extended far beyond the boundaries of the Roman Empire, shaping the cultures and legal systems of the Germanic peoples on its periphery and within it. This interaction played a crucial role in the development of medieval Europe, laying the foundations for the emergence of modern legal and political structures.
日耳曼人接受基督教不仅仅是宗教上的转变,还涉及对罗马法律及其原则的某些方面进行调整。例如,日耳曼传统上以部落习俗为基础的口传法律开始受到罗马法律概念的影响,尤其是在财产组织和民事事务管理方面。此外,基督教教士与日耳曼精英之间的互动也促进了罗马法律和行政知识的传播。教士们通常接受罗马传统教育,在日耳曼王国的行政管理和法律起草中发挥了关键作用。这种影响促成了日耳曼王国混合法律体系的出现,将日耳曼传统法律的元素与罗马法和教会法的元素结合在一起。这样,罗马法和基督教的影响远远超出了罗马帝国的边界,塑造了罗马帝国周边和内部日耳曼民族的文化和法律体系。这种互动对中世纪欧洲的发展起到了至关重要的作用,为现代法律和政治结构的出现奠定了基础。


Canon law, as the legal system of the Catholic Church, developed from a mosaic of sources, each bringing its own influence and perspective. At the heart of this system are the Sacred Scriptures, in particular the Old and New Testaments, which provide the fundamental principles and moral guidelines. In addition to their spiritual role, these sacred texts provide guidelines for conduct and organisation within the Christian community, thus influencing canonical norms. Another pillar of canon law is the decisions taken at councils, which are assemblies of bishops and theologians. These councils have played a decisive role in shaping the doctrine and canons of the Church. For example, the Council of Trent, held in the 16th century, brought about significant reforms and enacted numerous canons that have shaped modern canon law. Papal decrees are also an essential source of canon law. These documents, issued by popes, deal with a wide variety of issues, ranging from ecclesiastical discipline to the administration of the sacraments. Because of their authoritative nature, decretals have often served as key references in the interpretation and application of canon law.
教会法作为天主教会的法律体系,其发展源于多种来源,每种来源都带来了自己的影响和观点。这一体系的核心是《圣经》,尤其是《旧约》和《新约》,它们提供了基本原则和道德准则。除精神作用外,这些圣典还为基督教团体内部的行为和组织提供指导,从而影响教会法规范。教会法的另一个支柱是大公会议做出的决定,大公会议是主教和神学家的集会。这些大公会议在形成教会教义和教规方面发挥了决定性作用。例如,16 世纪召开的特伦特大公会议带来了重大改革,并颁布了许多塑造了现代教会法的教规。教皇法令也是教会法的重要来源。这些由教皇发布的文件涉及从教会纪律到圣礼管理等各种问题。由于其权威性,教令经常成为解释和应用教会法的重要参考。


In addition to these ecclesiastical sources, canon law has been influenced by regional customary law. Local practices and traditions of the Church, when recognised by ecclesiastical authority, could acquire legal status. These local customs reflected the diversity of Christian practices and contributed to the richness of canon law. Finally, the impact of Roman law, particularly in the area of the law of obligations, on canon law is indisputable. The Church borrowed and adapted many Roman legal principles to manage its own affairs. For example, Roman notions of contract and property have been integrated into the management of Church property and the resolution of disputes. In short, canon law is the result of a process of integration and adaptation of various sources and influences. From the wisdom of Sacred Scripture to the decisions of councils, papal decrees, customary law and the principles of Roman law, each element has helped to shape a legal system that has played a crucial role in the governance of the Catholic Church and exerted a profound influence on European society as a whole.
除了这些教会渊源,教会法还受到地区习惯法的影响。教会的地方习俗和传统如果得到教会权威的承认,就可以获得法律地位。这些地方习俗反映了基督教习俗的多样性,并为教会法的丰富多彩做出了贡献。最后,罗马法,尤其是义务法对教会法的影响是毋庸置疑的。教会借鉴并改编了许多罗马法律原则来管理自己的事务。例如,罗马的合同和财产概念已被纳入教会财产管理和争端解决中。简而言之,教会法是各种来源和影响融合与调整的结果。从神圣经文的智慧到大公会议的决定、教皇法令、习惯法和罗马法原则,每一个元素都有助于形成一个法律体系,该体系在天主教会的管理中发挥了至关重要的作用,并对整个欧洲社会产生了深远的影响。


Roman law and canon law share a fundamental characteristic: they are both systems of written law. This characteristic plays a crucial role in the way in which these legal systems have been developed, transmitted and applied over time. Roman law, as the legal system of the Roman Empire, was formalised and codified in various written documents. These documents included laws, edicts, decrees and resolutions issued by Roman authorities such as emperors and assemblies. Notable examples of this codification include the Code of Justinian, which brought together imperial laws, the Digest, a compilation of the opinions and decisions of Roman jurists, and the Institutes, a manual for teaching law. This written formalisation enabled the law to be applied consistently and uniformly across the vast Roman Empire. Similarly, the Canon Law of the Catholic Church is a codified system of law. It consists of laws and regulations established by the ecclesiastical authorities, in particular the Ecumenical Councils and the Popes. Canon law has been systematised in various written texts, such as the Code of Canon Law, which organises and presents the norms governing the Church. Writing down these laws and regulations has ensured uniformity and clarity in their interpretation and application within the Church throughout the world. The written nature of Roman and canon law contrasts with customary law systems, which are often based on oral traditions and uncodified practices. The existence of written texts in these legal systems has favoured the preservation and dissemination of legal knowledge, allowing for more in-depth study and more systematic application of the law. This characteristic has also facilitated the evolution and adaptation of these legal systems in response to social, economic and cultural changes over the centuries.
罗马法和教会法有一个共同的基本特征:它们都是成文法体系。这一特点对这两种法律体系的发展、传承和应用起着至关重要的作用。罗马法作为罗马帝国的法律体系,被正式编纂成各种书面文件。这些文件包括由皇帝和议会等罗马当局颁布的法律、诏书、法令和决议。这种编纂的著名例子包括汇集了帝国法律的《查士丁尼法典》、汇编了罗马法学家的意见和决定的《文摘》以及法律教学手册《制度》。这种书面的正式化使法律能够在广袤的罗马帝国得到一致和统一的应用。同样,天主教会的《教会法》也是一个成文法体系。它由教会当局,特别是大公会议和教皇制定的法律法规组成。教会法已被系统化地编入各种书面文本中,如《教会法典》,该法典组织并介绍了管理教会的规范。将这些法律法规写成文字,确保了世界各地教会在解释和应用这些法律法规时的统一性和明确性。罗马法和教会法的成文性质与习惯法体系形成了鲜明对比,后者通常以口头传统和未经编纂的惯例为基础。这些法律体系中书面文本的存在有利于法律知识的保存和传播,使人们能够对法律进行更深入的研究和更系统的应用。这一特点也促进了这些法律体系的演变和调整,以应对几个世纪以来的社会、经济和文化变化。


== End of the first millennium ==  
== 第一个千年结束 ==  
At the end of the first millennium, Europe underwent significant changes in its social and legal structure. One of the most remarkable aspects of this period was the obsolescence of the old laws, particularly those inherited from the Roman Empire and the various Germanic peoples such as the Burgundians, Visigoths and Franks. During this period, the notion of written law, as understood and applied in the Roman Empire and among the Germanic peoples, began to fade. Written codes, once the cornerstone of the legal and social order, lost their pre-eminence. This was partly due to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the political fragmentation that followed, as well as to the rise of the Germanic kingdoms, which did not have the same tradition of legal codification.
第一个千年末期,欧洲的社会和法律结构发生了重大变化。这一时期最引人注目的方面之一是旧法律的过时,尤其是罗马帝国和日耳曼各民族(如勃艮第人、西哥特人和法兰克人)遗留下来的法律。在这一时期,罗马帝国和日耳曼民族所理解和应用的成文法概念开始消退。曾经是法律和社会秩序基石的成文法典失去了其优越性。这部分是由于西罗马帝国的衰落和随之而来的政治分裂,以及日耳曼王国的崛起,而日耳曼王国并没有同样的法律编纂传统。


In this context, identity based on ethnic or imperial affiliations, such as defining oneself as Roman, Burgundian, Visigoth or Frankish, began to decline. Instead, identity and social organisation were increasingly defined by place of residence. People identified more with their locality or region than with ethnicity or nationality. This transition marked a significant change in the perception of the social and legal order. As a result, customary law became increasingly important. This law was based on local traditions and practices handed down orally from generation to generation. Each region, and even each locality, could have its own customs that governed daily life. These customs were often flexible and adaptable, reflecting the needs and realities of local communities.
在这种情况下,基于种族或帝国归属的身份认同开始衰落,例如将自己定义为罗马人、勃艮第人、西哥特人或法兰克人。取而代之的是,身份和社会组织越来越多地由居住地来定义。人们更多地认同自己的居住地或地区,而不是民族或国籍。这一转变标志着人们对社会和法律秩序的认识发生了重大变化。因此,习惯法变得越来越重要。习惯法以当地世代口耳相传的传统和习俗为基础。每个地区,甚至每个地方都有自己的习俗来管理日常生活。这些习俗往往具有灵活性和适应性,反映了当地社区的需求和现实。


This period also saw the emergence and consolidation of feudalism in Europe, a system in which social and political relations were largely based on land tenure and vassalage relationships. The feudal system, with its complex hierarchy of lords and vassals, also helped to shape the legal and social organisation of the period. The end of the first millennium was a period of profound transition in Europe, marked by changes in the legal and social order. The obsolescence of Roman and Germanic written law and the rise of customary law and feudalism redefined the way in which European societies were organised and governed.
在这一时期,封建制度在欧洲兴起并得到巩固,在这种制度下,社会和政治关系主要建立在土地保有权和附庸关系的基础上。封建制度及其复杂的领主和附庸等级制度也有助于形成这一时期的法律和社会组织。第一个千年末期是欧洲深刻转型的时期,其特点是法律和社会秩序发生了变化。罗马和日耳曼成文法的过时以及习惯法和封建主义的兴起重新定义了欧洲社会的组织和治理方式。


The entrenchment of customary law in Europe at the end of the first millennium can be explained by a series of significant social and cultural changes that occurred following the great invasions and the gradual fusion of the Germanic and Roman peoples. These migratory movements and the resulting interactions led to a profound redefinition of identity in many parts of Europe. During the Great Invasions, also known as the Migration Period, Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Lombards crossed the borders of the Roman Empire, settling in various parts of Europe. These movements marked the end of the Western Roman Empire and led to the formation of new kingdoms and societies in which Roman and Germanic cultures merged. This cultural and social fusion led to a redefinition of identity. Rather than identifying themselves strictly as Romans, Burgundians, Visigoths or Franks, people began to identify themselves according to the locality or region in which they lived. This transition was accompanied by a shift from Roman and Germanic written laws to more locally oriented legal systems based on oral customs and traditions.
第一个千年末期,习惯法在欧洲得到巩固,其原因在于日耳曼人和罗马人在大举入侵并逐渐融合之后,发生了一系列重大的社会和文化变革。这些移民运动和由此产生的互动导致欧洲许多地区对身份进行了深刻的重新定义。在大入侵(又称移民时期)期间,哥特人、汪达尔人、法兰克人和伦巴第人等日耳曼部落越过罗马帝国的边界,在欧洲各地定居下来。这些运动标志着西罗马帝国的终结,并导致新王国和新社会的形成,其中罗马文化和日耳曼文化相互融合。这种文化和社会的融合导致了身份的重新定义。人们不再严格地将自己视为罗马人、勃艮第人、西哥特人或法兰克人,而是开始根据自己生活的地方或地区来确定自己的身份。伴随着这一转变的是罗马和日耳曼成文法向以口头习俗和传统为基础的、更加面向地方的法律体系的转变。


These local customs were a mixture of Roman and Germanic traditions, adapted to the needs and realities of the communities. Instead of being based on centralised written codes, the law became a set of practices and norms transmitted orally, often under the supervision of local authorities such as lords or community assemblies. This period also saw the development of the feudal system, which reinforced the localisation of identity and law. In this system, loyalty and vassalage relationships were paramount, and rules and obligations were often defined by the customs of the fiefdom or seigneury. The entrenchment of customary law in Europe at the end of the first millennium was the result of a process of fusion and redefinition of identity, following the great invasions and the integration of the Germanic and Roman peoples. This transformation indelibly shaped the social, cultural and legal structures of medieval Europe.
这些地方习俗融合了罗马和日耳曼的传统,并根据社区的需求和现实情况进行了调整。法律不再以中央集权的成文法典为基础,而是成为一套口口相传的惯例和规范,通常由地方当局(如领主或社区大会)监督。这一时期还出现了封建制度,它加强了身份和法律的地方化。在这种制度下,忠诚和附庸关系是最重要的,规则和义务通常由封地或seigneury的习俗来定义。在第一个千年末期,习惯法在欧洲得到巩固,这是日耳曼人和罗马人大举入侵和融合之后身份融合和重新定义过程的结果。这一转变不可磨灭地塑造了中世纪欧洲的社会、文化和法律结构。


At the end of the first millennium, Europe went through a period in which the notion of written law, inherited from Roman and Germanic traditions, experienced a significant decline. This period is often associated with a loss of scholarly culture, particularly in terms of legal knowledge. This had a significant impact on the operation of the justice system and the application of the law. With the gradual disappearance of the use of written law, much of Europe entered a period when established legal traditions were less accessible, less understood or sometimes even forgotten. Judges and local authorities, who played a key role in the administration of justice, often lacked formal legal training and had little or no knowledge of Roman and Germanic law. This ignorance of written law led to increased dependence on local customs, which, although practical and adapted to everyday life, did not always benefit from the coherence and rigour of formalised legal systems.
在第一个千年末期,欧洲经历了一个从罗马和日耳曼传统中继承下来的成文法观念显著衰落的时期。这一时期往往与学术文化,尤其是法律知识的丧失联系在一起。这对司法系统的运作和法律的适用产生了重大影响。随着成文法的使用逐渐消失,欧洲大部分地区进入了一个既有法律传统不易获取、不易理解,有时甚至被遗忘的时期。在司法中发挥关键作用的法官和地方当局往往缺乏正规的法律培训,对罗马法和日耳曼法知之甚少或一无所知。这种对成文法的无知导致人们越来越依赖于当地的习俗,尽管这些习俗实用且适应日常生活,但并不总能从正式法律体系的连贯性和严谨性中受益。


Canon law, however, escaped this trend. As the legal system of the Catholic Church, canon law continued to be taught, developed and applied throughout this period. Church clerics and scholars, who often had access to more formal education, maintained and passed on knowledge of canon law. Universities, which began to emerge in the Middle Ages, played a crucial role in the preservation and teaching of canon law, as well as in the renaissance of legal studies in Europe. Canon law remained a bastion of written and structured legal thought at a time when other forms of written law were in decline. Moreover, the Catholic Church, as an influential and widespread institution, used its canon law to influence not only religious matters, but also social and even political aspects in many parts of Europe. As a result, canon law not only survived this period of cultural loss, but also played a key role in the subsequent development of European law, laying the foundations for the renaissance of Roman law and the formation of modern legal systems.
然而,教会法却摆脱了这一趋势。作为天主教会的法律体系,教会法在这一时期继续得到传授、发展和应用。教会神职人员和学者通常有机会接受更正规的教育,他们保持并传承着教会法的知识。中世纪开始兴起的大学在教会法的保存和教学以及欧洲法律研究的复兴中发挥了至关重要的作用。在其他形式的成文法衰落之时,教会法仍然是成文和结构化法律思想的堡垒。此外,天主教会作为一个影响广泛的机构,利用其教会法不仅影响宗教事务,还影响欧洲许多地区的社会甚至政治方面。因此,教会法不仅经受住了这一文化失落时期的考验,而且在随后的欧洲法律发展中发挥了关键作用,为罗马法的复兴和现代法律体系的形成奠定了基础。


During this period of legal transition in Europe, marked by a retreat from Roman and Germanic written law, we saw the emergence of local law, better adapted to the realities and needs of specific communities. This development reflects a pragmatic adaptation to changing circumstances and a response to the challenges posed by the loss of a scholarly legal culture. In many territories, the law applied was that of the majority of the population living in the area. This meant that legal norms and rules were largely dictated by the customs and practices prevalent among the local inhabitants. This local law was therefore inherently flexible and varied, reflecting the diversity of traditions and lifestyles across Europe.
在欧洲法律转型的这一时期,罗马法和日耳曼成文法退隐,我们看到了地方法律的出现,它更好地适应了特定社区的现实和需要。这一发展反映了对不断变化的环境的务实适应,以及对失去学术性法律文化所带来的挑战的回应。在许多地区,适用的法律是当地大多数居民的法律。这意味着法律规范和规则在很大程度上是由当地居民的风俗习惯决定的。因此,这种地方法律具有内在的灵活性和多样性,反映了欧洲各地传统和生活方式的多样性。


This new local law often combined elements of ancient Roman and Germanic legislation. Although detailed knowledge of these legal systems had diminished, their influences persisted in the form of fragments incorporated into local customs. For example, certain principles of Roman law, such as those relating to property or contracts, could be interwoven with Germanic legal practices, particularly in relation to family law and conflict resolution. In addition, these local legal systems were characterised by a capacity for innovation and adaptation. Solutions to specific legal problems were often created on a case-by-case basis, without necessarily referring to a written code or established precedent. This allowed great flexibility in the administration of justice, but also led to a lack of uniformity and predictability in the application of the law. This period, although representing something of a retreat from the legal formalisation of the Roman Empire, was essential in the formation of legal systems adapted to the medieval realities of Europe. The emergence of this local law laid the foundations for the subsequent development of national and regional legal systems in Europe, blending historical influences with innovations adapted to local contexts.
这种新的地方法律往往融合了古罗马和日耳曼法律的元素。尽管对这些法律体系的详细了解已经减少,但它们的影响仍以融入当地习俗的片段形式存在。例如,罗马法的某些原则,如与财产或合同有关的原则,可以与日耳曼法律实践交织在一起,特别是在家庭法和解决冲突方面。此外,这些地方法律体系还具有创新和适应能力的特点。解决具体法律问题的办法往往是根据具体情况制定的,不一定要参照成文法典或既定先例。这使得司法具有极大的灵活性,但也导致法律适用缺乏统一性和可预见性。这一时期虽然代表着罗马帝国法律正规化的某种退缩,但对于适应欧洲中世纪现实的法律体系的形成至关重要。这种地方法律的出现为后来欧洲国家和地区法律体系的发展奠定了基础,将历史影响与适应当地情况的创新融为一体。


During the medieval period, particularly after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, European law underwent a significant transformation with the emergence of a new body of law developed primarily at local level. Unlike the earlier Roman and Germanic legal systems, this law no longer took the form of formalised written law, but rather took the form of local customary law. This local customary law was based on traditions and practices that were passed down orally and applied by communities. It reflected the specific social, economic and cultural realities of each region or locality. As a result, this law was extremely varied across Europe, with each community having its own customs that governed aspects of daily life, such as property ownership, marriage, inheritance and conflict resolution. The lack of uniformity and the unwritten nature of this customary law had both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it allowed great flexibility and adaptation to specific local circumstances. On the other, it could lead to legal uncertainty and marked differences in the application of justice from one region to another.
中世纪时期,特别是西罗马帝国灭亡后,欧洲法律经历了重大变革,出现了主要在地方一级发展的新法律体系。与早期的罗马和日耳曼法律体系不同,这种法律不再采用正式成文法的形式,而是采用地方习惯法的形式。这种地方习惯法以口口相传的传统和惯例为基础,由社区实施。它反映了每个地区或地方特定的社会、经济和文化现实。因此,欧洲各地的习惯法差异极大,每个社区都有自己的习俗来规范日常生活的方方面面,如财产所有权、婚姻、继承和冲突解决等。这种缺乏统一性和不成文性质的习惯法有利有弊。一方面,它具有极大的灵活性,可以适应当地的具体情况。另一方面,它也可能导致法律的不确定性以及不同地区在适用司法方面的明显差异。


During this period, local customary law became the dominant legal system in many parts of Europe. Formal written law systems, such as Roman law, were largely inaccessible or forgotten outside scholarly circles, mainly preserved in monasteries or ecclesiastical institutions. Consequently, for the majority of the population, local customary law was the main, if not the only, relevant legal system. This predominance of customary law continued until the revival of legal studies and Roman law in medieval universities, particularly from the 11th and 12th centuries onwards. The re-emergence of Roman law and the emergence of universities played a crucial role in shaping the foundations of modern legal systems in Europe. Nevertheless, the influence of local customary law remained important and continues to influence legal systems in many regions.
在这一时期,地方习惯法成为欧洲许多地区的主要法律体系。正式的成文法体系,如罗马法,主要保存在修道院或教会机构中,学术界以外的人基本上无法接触或遗忘。因此,对于大多数人来说,当地的习惯法是主要的,甚至是唯一的相关法律体系。这种习惯法的主导地位一直持续到中世纪大学的法学研究和罗马法的复兴,尤其是 11 世纪和 12 世纪以后。罗马法的重新崛起和大学的兴起对欧洲现代法律体系的奠基起到了至关重要的作用。然而,地方习惯法的影响依然重要,并继续影响着许多地区的法律体系。


In the medieval period, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and during the periods of migration and settlement of the Germanic peoples, the Roman and Germanic legal systems did not disappear completely, but their accessibility and direct influence on everyday life diminished considerably. These laws, especially Roman law, existed mainly in the form of written documents that were kept in libraries, particularly those of monasteries and ecclesiastical institutions.
中世纪时期,在西罗马帝国崩溃后以及日耳曼民族迁徙和定居期间,罗马和日耳曼法律体系并未完全消失,但其可获取性和对日常生活的直接影响却大大减弱。这些法律,尤其是罗马法,主要以书面文件的形式存在,保存在图书馆,尤其是修道院和教会机构的图书馆中。


During this period, Europe experienced a kind of decline in the knowledge and active use of Roman law. Roman legal texts, such as those compiled in Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis, were often inaccessible to the majority of the population, including many local judges and administrators. These texts were mainly preserved in monastic libraries, where they were studied by a small elite of clerics and scholars. However, this preservation was crucial to the transmission of Roman legal knowledge down the centuries. Similarly, Germanic law, although codified in some cases (such as the Laws of the Burgundians or the Lex Salica of the Franks), was not as widespread or accessible as local customary law. These Germanic texts were also often preserved in monastic contexts or in royal courts, and their application was limited compared with local customary law, which was more immediately relevant to people's everyday lives.
在这一时期,欧洲对罗马法的了解和积极使用出现了某种程度的衰退。罗马法律文本,如查士丁尼的《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis)中编纂的法律文本,大多数人,包括许多地方法官和行政人员,往往无法获得。这些文本主要保存在修道院图书馆中,供少数教士和学者精英研究。然而,这种保存方式对于罗马法律知识的世代相传至关重要。同样,日耳曼法律虽然在某些情况下已经编纂成法典(如勃艮第人的法律或法兰克人的萨利卡法),但并不像当地习惯法那样普及或容易获得。这些日耳曼文本通常保存在修道院或皇家法庭中,与当地习惯法相比,它们的适用范围有限,因为当地习惯法更贴近人们的日常生活。


This began to change with the Renaissance of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when universities in Europe, such as Bologna in Italy, began to rediscover and teach Roman law. This legal renaissance led to a revitalisation of the study of Roman law and laid the foundations for the subsequent development of legal systems in Europe. Thus, although Germanic and Roman law were to some extent relegated to libraries during this period, their preservation in these centres of learning was essential to their rediscovery and influence on later European legal systems.
这种情况随着十二和十三世纪的文艺复兴而开始改变,当时欧洲的大学,如意大利的博洛尼亚,开始重新发现并教授罗马法。这一法律复兴导致了罗马法研究的复兴,并为随后欧洲法律体系的发展奠定了基础。因此,尽管日耳曼法和罗马法在一定程度上在这一时期被归入图书馆,但它们在这些学习中心的保存对它们的重新发现和对后来欧洲法律体系的影响至关重要。


== Beginning of the second millennium ==
== 第二个千年开始 ==


=== Glossators : 12th century - 13th century ===
=== 语言学家:12 世纪 - 13 世纪 ===
The twelfth and thirteenth centuries marked a crucial period in the history of European law with the rediscovery and study of Justinian law at the University of Bologna. This period is particularly notable for the emergence of glossators, jurists and scholars who played a central role in the revival of Roman law. At Bologna, one of the first and most influential medieval universities, the glossators began to study in depth the Corpus Juris Civilis, a collection of legal texts drawn up in Constantinople under the emperor Justinian in the sixth century. These texts, which included the Code, the Digest, the Institutes and the Novelles, formed an exhaustive compilation of Roman law. Although these texts had been preserved for centuries, it was not until this period that their systematic study was revived. The glossators not only rediscovered these ancient texts, but also set about commenting on and explaining them. Their work consisted of writing "glosses" or marginal commentaries that clarified, interpreted and extended the original text. This method of study made Justinian law more accessible and applicable to contemporary situations.  
随着博洛尼亚大学对查士丁尼法律的重新发现和研究,12 世纪和 13 世纪标志着欧洲法律史上的一个关键时期。这一时期尤其值得注意的是,出现了在罗马法复兴过程中发挥核心作用的词汇学家、法学家和学者。博洛尼亚大学是中世纪最早和最有影响力的大学之一,在这所大学里,词汇学家们开始深入研究《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis),这是六世纪查士丁尼皇帝在君士坦丁堡制定的法律文本集。这些文本包括《法典》、《文摘》、《制度》和《小说》,是一部详尽的罗马法汇编。虽然这些文本已经保存了几个世纪,但直到这一时期才重新开始对它们进行系统的研究。注释者不仅重新发现了这些古籍,还着手对其进行注释和解释。他们的工作包括撰写 "注释 "或旁注,对原文进行澄清、解释和扩展。这种研究方法使查士丁尼法律更易于理解和适用于当代情况。  


Their approach marked a significant change in the way legal disputes were resolved. Instead of relying solely on traditional customs, which could sometimes be arbitrary or contrary to reason, the glossators promoted a more rational and systematic approach. They analysed each specific case, seeking to extract a solution that not only complied with the legal texts, but was also logical and fair. The influence of the glossators and their work on the Corpus Juris Civilis had a profound impact on the development of law in Europe. They laid the foundations for a deeper understanding and more systematic application of Roman law, which ultimately led to the emergence of the civil law tradition in Europe. Their legacy lives on in modern legal systems, where rational analysis and reference to fundamental legal texts remain central aspects of legal practice.
他们的研究方法标志着解决法律纠纷的方式发生了重大变化。传统习俗有时可能是武断的或违背理性的,而词汇编纂者并不完全依赖传统习俗,而是提倡一种更加理性和系统的方法。他们分析每个具体案件,寻求既符合法律条文,又合乎逻辑和公平的解决方案。纂修者的影响及其对《民法大全》的工作对欧洲法律的发展产生了深远的影响。他们为更深入地理解和更系统地应用罗马法奠定了基础,最终导致了欧洲民法传统的出现。在现代法律体系中,理性分析和参考基本法律文本仍然是法律实践的核心内容。


The glossators, with their meticulous and innovative work on the Corpus Juris Civilis in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, are often considered to be the fathers of European jurisprudence. Their influence on law and legal methodology in Europe was profound and lasting, marking a decisive turning point in the history of Western law. By rediscovering and commenting on the texts of Roman law, the glossators not only preserved a precious legal heritage, but also revolutionised the way law was thought and practised in Europe. Their methodical and analytical approach led to a deeper understanding and more systematic interpretation of the law. By providing detailed commentaries and clarifications on complex legal texts, they made Roman law accessible and applicable to contemporary situations. Their work contributed to the formation of a European legal tradition that valued rational analysis, reference to written texts and the systematic application of legal principles. This tradition was crucial in the development of what is now known as the civil law system, which predominates in much of Europe and has influenced other legal systems around the world. The glossators also laid the foundations of jurisprudence, establishing methods for interpreting the law and resolving disputes. Their influence is felt not only in the way the law is taught and studied in universities, but also in the day-to-day practice of law. Thus, by reviving and enriching Roman law, the glossators not only preserved a legal heritage, but also helped to shape the framework of legal thought and practice in modern Europe. Their legacy continues to be a cornerstone of European jurisprudence.
12 世纪和 13 世纪,纂修者对民法典进行了细致而创新的纂修,他们通常被视为欧洲法理学之父。他们对欧洲法律和法律方法论的影响深远而持久,标志着西方法律史上一个决定性的转折点。通过对罗马法文本的重新发现和评论,词汇家们不仅保存了珍贵的法律遗产,还彻底改变了欧洲的法律思想和实践方式。他们有条不紊的分析方法使人们对法律有了更深刻的理解和更系统的解释。通过对复杂的法律条文进行详细的注释和澄清,他们使罗马法变得通俗易懂并适用于当代情况。他们的工作促进了欧洲法律传统的形成,这一传统重视理性分析、参考成文法以及系统地应用法律原则。这一传统对现在的大陆法系的发展至关重要,大陆法系在欧洲大部分地区占主导地位,并影响了世界上的其他法律体系。词汇家们还奠定了法理学的基础,确立了解释法律和解决争端的方法。他们的影响不仅体现在大学教授和研究法律的方式上,也体现在日常的法律实践中。因此,通过复兴和丰富罗马法,词汇家们不仅保存了法律遗产,还帮助塑造了现代欧洲的法律思想和实践框架。他们的遗产仍然是欧洲法学的基石。


The work of the glossators at the University of Bologna in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had a considerable influence, attracting students from all over Europe wishing to study Roman law. Thanks to these scholars, Bologna became a major centre of legal learning and played a crucial role in spreading legal knowledge across the continent. The glossators' teaching method, based on in-depth analysis and rigorous interpretation of Roman law texts, was revolutionary for its time. Students were attracted not only by the richness of the content taught, but also by the teaching method, which fostered an in-depth and critical understanding of legal principles. The glossators taught how to apply the principles of Roman law to concrete cases, a highly sought-after skill at a time when local customary law predominated.
12 世纪和 13 世纪,博洛尼亚大学的词汇学家们的工作产生了相当大的影响,吸引了来自欧洲各地希望学习罗马法的学生。由于这些学者的努力,博洛尼亚成为了一个重要的法律学习中心,并在向欧洲大陆传播法律知识方面发挥了至关重要的作用。词汇学家的教学方法基于对罗马法文本的深入分析和严谨解读,在当时具有革命性意义。学生们不仅被丰富的教学内容所吸引,而且也被这种教学方法所吸引,因为这种方法可以培养学生对法律原则的深入和批判性理解。语法学家们教授如何将罗马法的原则应用到具体案例中,这在当时地方习惯法占主导地位的时代是非常抢手的技能。


The students who came to Bologna to study with the glossators came from various parts of Europe, helping to form an international network of jurists trained in the Roman law tradition. Once they returned to their home countries, these students disseminated the knowledge they had acquired and often played an important role in the development and reform of local legal systems. They also contributed to the creation of new law schools and the spread of legal education across Europe. The impact of the University of Bologna and the glossators therefore extended far beyond Italy. Their influence was a decisive factor in the revival of Roman law in Europe and laid the foundations for the subsequent development of the civil law system. Thanks to these teachings, the University of Bologna has remained a model for legal education institutions for centuries and continues to be recognised today as one of the cradles of modern legal education.
来博洛尼亚向术语汇编者学习的学生来自欧洲各地,这有助于形成一个以罗马法传统为培训对象的法学家国际网络。回国后,这些学生传播他们所学到的知识,并经常在当地法律制度的发展和改革中发挥重要作用。他们还为新法学院的创建和法律教育在欧洲的传播做出了贡献。因此,博洛尼亚大学和词汇学家们的影响远远超出了意大利。他们的影响是罗马法在欧洲复兴的决定性因素,并为随后大陆法系的发展奠定了基础。得益于这些教诲,博洛尼亚大学数百年来一直是法律教育机构的典范,如今仍被公认为现代法律教育的摇篮之一。


=== Conciliators: 14th century - 15th century ===
=== 调解员 14 世纪 - 15 世纪 ===
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the influence of the glossators' teachings and the gradual integration of Roman law into European legal practice continued to evolve, notably through the role of the conciliators. These conciliators, often professors and jurists, played a crucial role in the fusion of Roman law with local legal systems, particularly in regions such as Italy.
在 14 世纪和 15 世纪,"词汇编纂者 "学说的影响以及罗马法逐渐融入欧洲法律实践的过程不断发展,其中调解人的作用尤为突出。这些调解人通常是教授和法学家,他们在罗马法与当地法律体系的融合中发挥了至关重要的作用,尤其是在意大利等地区。


Continuing the work begun by the glossators, the conciliators sought to apply the principles of Roman law to the resolution of specific legal cases. Faced with situations where local law, often based on Germanic customs or traditions, proved insufficient, the conciliators turned to Roman law to find more appropriate and rational solutions. This approach led to what might be called a 'Romanisation' of local law, especially in Italy. By incorporating elements of Roman law into legal practice, the conciliators helped to enrich and sophisticate local legal systems. Roman law, with its logical structure, elaborate concepts and systematic approach, offered a more complete legal framework for dealing with a variety of legal issues.
调解人延续了词汇编纂者的工作,努力将罗马法的原则应用于解决具体的法律案件。当地法律通常以日耳曼习俗或传统为基础,面对这些情况,调解员们转而求助于罗马法,以找到更合适、更合理的解决方案。这种做法导致了当地法律的 "罗马化",尤其是在意大利。通过将罗马法的元素融入法律实践,调解人帮助丰富和完善了当地的法律体系。罗马法以其合理的结构、详尽的概念和系统的方法,为处理各种法律问题提供了一个更加完整的法律框架。


This process marked an important stage in the evolution of law in Europe. By fusing the principles of Roman law with local customs, the conciliators helped to create more unified and coherent legal systems. This synthesis also helped to form the basis of modern legal systems in Europe, which often combine elements of Roman law with local legal traditions. The role of the conciliators in the 14th and 15th centuries was essential to the spread and practical application of Roman law in Europe. Their work not only helped to fill the gaps in local legal systems, but also played a crucial role in the harmonisation and modernisation of European law.
这一过程标志着欧洲法律演变的一个重要阶段。通过将罗马法的原则与当地习俗相结合,调解人帮助建立了更加统一和连贯的法律体系。这种综合也有助于形成欧洲现代法律体系的基础,这些体系往往将罗马法的元素与当地法律传统相结合。14 和 15 世纪调解人的作用对于罗马法在欧洲的传播和实际应用至关重要。他们的工作不仅有助于填补当地法律体系的空白,还在欧洲法律的协调和现代化方面发挥了至关重要的作用。


=== Legal humanism: 16th century - 17th century ===
=== 法律人文主义:16 世纪 - 17 世纪 ===
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europe experienced a major intellectual movement known as legal humanism. This movement marked a turning point in the way Roman law was approached and understood, distinguishing it from the methods of the glossators and conciliators of previous centuries.
十六和十七世纪,欧洲经历了一场被称为法律人文主义的重大思想运动。这场运动标志着人们对待和理解罗马法的方式出现了转折点,使其有别于前几个世纪的术语解释者和调解者的方法。


Legal humanism was characterised by a return to the original sources of Roman law, focusing particularly on the meaning and spirit of the law as laid down in the Corpus Juris Civilis of the Emperor Justinian. Legal humanists sought to understand Roman law in its purest form, stripping away the layers of interpretation and commentary accumulated over the centuries by glossators and conciliators. This approach involved direct, in-depth study of the original texts of Roman law, moving away from medieval interpretations towards a more authentic, historical understanding of the law. Legal humanists emphasised philology, the critical study of texts, to rediscover the original meaning and intent behind the laws and principles established by Justinian and other Roman sources.
法律人文主义的特点是回归罗马法的原始渊源,尤其注重查士丁尼皇帝的《民法大全》中规定的法律的含义和精神。法律人文主义者试图以最纯粹的形式理解罗马法,剥离几个世纪以来由术语解释者和调解者积累起来的层层解释和评注。这种方法涉及对罗马法原文的直接、深入研究,从中世纪的解释转向对法律更真实、更历史性的理解。法律人文主义者强调语言学,即对文本的批判性研究,以重新发现查士丁尼和其他罗马来源制定的法律和原则背后的原始含义和意图。


Legal humanism also encouraged a broader perspective in the study of law, integrating historical, philosophical and cultural knowledge. This holistic approach made it possible to place Roman law in a broader cultural and historical context, thereby enriching legal understanding and fostering a more nuanced and enlightened interpretation of the texts. The legal humanism movement had a significant impact on the development of law in Europe. It not only contributed to a better understanding of Roman law, but also influenced legal practice, the teaching of law and the formation of modern legal systems. By returning to the sources of Roman law, the legal humanists helped to establish a solid foundation for the study and practice of law, which continues to influence contemporary legal thought.
法律人文主义还鼓励以更广阔的视角研究法律,将历史、哲学和文化知识融为一体。这种全面的研究方法使人们有可能将罗马法置于更广阔的文化和历史背景中,从而丰富对法律的理解,并促进对法律文本进行更细致和更开明的解释。法律人文主义运动对欧洲的法律发展产生了重大影响。它不仅有助于更好地理解罗马法,还影响了法律实践、法律教学和现代法律制度的形成。通过回归罗马法的渊源,法律人文主义者帮助为法律研究和实践奠定了坚实的基础,并继续影响着当代法律思想。


=== The integration of Roman law in Western Europe ===
=== 罗马法在西欧的融合 ===
The integration of Roman law in Western Europe during the second millennium took place in several distinct phases, each contributing significantly to the renaissance and evolution of European jurisprudence. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the University of Bologna became the centre of a remarkable intellectual movement with the emergence of the glossators. These scholars set out to restore and study the Corpus Juris Civilis, an exhaustive compilation of Roman law drawn up under the emperor Justinian. Their meticulous work not only revitalised the study of Roman law, but also laid the foundations for modern European jurisprudence. For example, Irnerius, one of the first glossators, was instrumental in analysing and interpreting Roman legal texts, shedding essential light on their understanding. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the emergence of the conciliators, who played a crucial role in integrating Roman law into everyday legal practice. The conciliators used the principles and solutions of Roman law to fill the gaps in local legal systems, which were often based on less formalised customs and traditions. This led to a 'Romanisation' of local law, particularly in Italy, where conciliators helped to enrich and sophisticate legal practice. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, legal humanism marked a return to the origins of Roman law, seeking to understand these legal texts without relying on the earlier annotations and interpretations of glossators and conciliators. Legal humanists, such as Andrea Alciato, adopted a philological and historical approach, aiming to grasp the original meaning and intention behind Roman laws. This period was characterised by a more critical and contextualised study of Roman law, profoundly influencing the way law was taught and practised. Together, these different phases shaped the renaissance and development of Roman law in Western Europe, indelibly influencing the trajectory of European jurisprudence. They not only preserved a precious legal heritage, but also laid the foundations for modern legal systems that combine the principles of Roman law with contemporary realities.
第二个千年期间,罗马法在西欧的融合经历了几个不同的阶段,每个阶段都对欧洲法学的复兴和演变做出了重要贡献。十二和十三世纪,随着词汇学家的出现,博洛尼亚大学成为了一场引人注目的知识运动的中心。这些学者着手恢复和研究《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis),这是查士丁尼皇帝时期编纂的一部详尽的罗马法汇编。他们一丝不苟的工作不仅振兴了罗马法研究,还为现代欧洲法学奠定了基础。例如,最早的训诂学家之一伊尔内留斯(Irnerius)在分析和解释罗马法律条文方面发挥了重要作用,为人们理解条文提供了重要依据。14 世纪和 15 世纪出现了调解人,他们在将罗马法融入日常法律实践方面发挥了至关重要的作用。调解人利用罗马法的原则和解决方案来填补地方法律体系的空白,而地方法律体系往往是建立在不太正式的习俗和传统之上的。这导致了当地法律的 "罗马化",尤其是在意大利,调解人帮助丰富和完善了当地的法律实践。在 16 世纪和 17 世纪,法律人文主义标志着罗马法起源的回归,它试图不依赖于早期术语解释者和调解人的注释和解释来理解这些法律文本。Andrea Alciato 等法律人文主义者采用了一种语言学和历史学的方法,旨在把握罗马法律背后的原意和意图。这一时期的特点是对罗马法进行更具批判性和语境化的研究,对法律的教学和实践方式产生了深远影响。这些不同阶段共同塑造了罗马法在西欧的复兴和发展,对欧洲法理学的发展轨迹产生了不可磨灭的影响。它们不仅保存了珍贵的法律遗产,还为将罗马法原则与当代现实相结合的现代法律体系奠定了基础。


The dynamics of the relationship between Roman law and local customs in medieval and early modern Europe are complex and fascinating. Although Roman law seemed to disappear or at least to recede significantly after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it continued to exert a subtle influence through local customs that had absorbed some of its principles. With the revival of Roman law, initiated by the work of the glossators at the University of Bologna and continued by the conciliators and legal humanists, this ancient law gradually regained ground in Europe, particularly in the southern regions that had a strong Roman heritage. In these regions, Roman law began to re-enter legal practice, often replacing or modifying the systems of local law that had developed over the preceding centuries.
在中世纪和近代早期的欧洲,罗马法与当地习俗之间的动态关系复杂而迷人。虽然罗马法在西罗马帝国灭亡后似乎消失了,或者至少是大幅衰退了,但它通过吸收了其部分原则的地方习俗继续发挥着微妙的影响。随着罗马法的复兴(由博洛尼亚大学的词汇学家发起,并由调解人和法律人文主义者继续),这一古老的法律逐渐在欧洲,尤其是在具有深厚罗马传统的南部地区重新获得了地位。在这些地区,罗马法开始重新进入法律实践,往往取代或修改了前几个世纪发展起来的地方法律体系。


This effect was particularly marked in countries such as Italy, Spain and Portugal, where the Roman heritage was deeply rooted. In these regions, the 'Romanisation' of local legal systems accelerated as the principles of Roman law were rediscovered and reintegrated. These principles offered a more coherent and systematic legal framework than the often fragmented and varied local customs. In Italy, for example, the return of Roman law led to a significant transformation in local legal practices. Lawyers trained in Bologna and other university centres began to apply the teachings of Roman law to the resolution of disputes and the formulation of new laws. Similarly, in Spain, Roman law influenced the compilation of the "Siete Partidas", a major legal code of the 13th century. Although Roman law seemed to disappear after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it survived and was preserved through local customs. With the legal renaissance that began in the Middle Ages and continued through the Renaissance, it regained a pre-eminent position, particularly in the countries of southern Europe, where it replaced or transformed existing local legal systems. This process was a key element in the formation of Europe's modern legal systems.
这种影响在意大利、西班牙和葡萄牙等罗马传统根深蒂固的国家尤为明显。在这些地区,随着罗马法原则被重新发现和整合,当地法律体系的 "罗马化 "进程也在加速。这些原则提供了一个更加连贯和系统的法律框架,而不是往往支离破碎和各不相同的地方习俗。例如,在意大利,罗马法的回归导致了当地法律实践的重大转变。在博洛尼亚和其他大学中心接受培训的律师开始将罗马法的教义应用于解决争端和制定新法律。同样,在西班牙,罗马法也影响了 13 世纪一部重要法典 "Siete Partidas "的编纂。虽然罗马法在西罗马帝国灭亡后似乎消失了,但它通过当地习俗得以保存下来。随着中世纪开始并持续到文艺复兴时期的法律复兴,它重新获得了卓越的地位,尤其是在南欧国家,它取代或改变了当地现有的法律体系。这一过程是欧洲现代法律体系形成的关键因素。


Prior to the promulgation of the Civil Code in 1804, France had a divided legal landscape, reflecting the historical and cultural complexity of the country. This division was particularly marked between the south and the north of the country, each with a distinct approach to law and legal tradition. In the south of France, the influence of Roman law was particularly strong. The revival of Roman law, which began in the Middle Ages, led to a gradual decline in local customs rooted in Roman tradition. This region, having retained a direct heritage from the Roman Empire, saw Roman law reintegrated and taught in universities. The University of Orléans, for example, was an important centre for the study of Roman law in France. This Roman legal tradition, with its sophisticated principles and methodology, was favoured and gradually supplanted local customs in the south. In the north of France, however, the situation was different. The arrival and development of Roman law was often perceived as a threat to local legal traditions, which were more influenced by Germanic law. Faced with the growing influence of Roman law, there was a movement to write down Germanic customs. The aim of the medieval customary law movement was to preserve local legal traditions by codifying them.
在《民法典》于 1804 年颁布之前,法国的法律体系分化严重,反映了该国历史和文化的复杂性。这种分化在法国南部和北部尤为明显,每个地区都有自己独特的法律方法和法律传统。在法国南部,罗马法的影响尤为强烈。罗马法的复兴始于中世纪,导致植根于罗马传统的地方习俗逐渐衰落。该地区保留了罗马帝国的直接遗产,罗马法被重新整合并在大学中教授。例如,奥尔良大学就是法国研究罗马法的重要中心。这种罗马法律传统及其复杂的原则和方法受到了南部地区的青睐,并逐渐取代了当地的习俗。然而,法国北部的情况有所不同。罗马法的到来和发展往往被视为对当地法律传统的威胁,因为当地法律传统更多地受到日耳曼法的影响。面对罗马法日益增长的影响力,出现了将日耳曼习俗写入法律的运动。中世纪习惯法运动的目的是通过编纂习惯法来保护当地的法律传统。


Medieval coutumiers, such as the "Coutumier de Normandie" or the "Coutume de Paris", played a crucial role in documenting and formalising local legal practices. These texts not only served as compilations of customs; they also represented an effort to systematise and rationalise traditional legal practices. Although these coutumiers were influenced by Roman law in certain respects, they mainly sought to transcribe and preserve Germanic customs in their own right. The legal duality in France, with Roman law dominating in the south and Germanic customs in the north, persisted until the promulgation of the French Civil Code in 1804. The Civil Code, known as the Napoleonic Code, sought to unify the French legal system by integrating and rationalising elements of both legal traditions. This codification marked a key moment in French legal history, creating a uniform legal framework for the whole country.
中世纪的习惯法编纂者,如 "诺曼底习惯法编纂者 ""巴黎习惯法编纂者",在记录和正式确定当地法律惯例方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些文本不仅是风俗习惯的汇编,也是将传统法律实践系统化和合理化的努力。虽然这些法典在某些方面受到罗马法的影响,但它们主要是为了记录和保存日耳曼习俗。在 1804 年《法国民法典》颁布之前,法国的法律二元结构一直存在,即罗马法在南部占主导地位,日耳曼习俗在北部占主导地位。民法典》被称为《拿破仑法典》,旨在通过整合两种法律传统的要素并使之合理化,从而统一法国的法律体系。这部法典的编纂标志着法国法律史上的一个关键时刻,为整个国家创建了一个统一的法律框架。


== 15th century - 16th century ==
== 15 世纪 - 16 世纪 ==
In the 15th and 16th centuries, a significant development in the field of law took place in France: the drafting of local customs under the aegis of the sovereign power. This process was part of a wider effort to systematise and formalise legal laws and practices, which varied widely from region to region.
15 世纪和 16 世纪,法国在法律领域取得了重大发展:在宗主国的支持下起草地方习俗。这一过程是将法律和惯例系统化和正规化的广泛努力的一部分,而不同地区的法律和惯例差异很大。


During the reign of Louis XI, and later under François I, the royal power undertook an initiative to compile and codify local customs. This move was motivated by the desire to bring a degree of coherence and uniformity to France's fragmented legal landscape. Each locality or province was invited to draw up its custom, i.e. to formalise in writing the laws and practices that had traditionally been handed down orally and applied informally. The process of drafting customs often involved collecting, examining and standardising local legal practices. This meant that, for the first time, whole regions of France had written documents describing their laws and legal procedures. However, although this initiative contributed to a degree of organisation and clarification of the law, it also maintained legal diversity across the country, with each region retaining its own specific customs.
在路易十一统治时期,以及后来的弗朗索瓦一世统治时期,王权开始着手汇编和编纂地方习俗。此举的动机是希望为法国支离破碎的法律体系带来一定程度的连贯性和统一性。每个地方或省份都被邀请制定自己的习俗,即以书面形式将传统上口头流传和非正式应用的法律和惯例正式化。在起草习俗的过程中,往往需要收集、审查和规范当地的法律惯例。这意味着,法国整个地区第一次有了描述其法律和法律程序的书面文件。然而,尽管这一举措在一定程度上促进了法律的组织化和明确化,但也使全国各地的法律保持了多样性,每个地区都保留了自己特定的习俗。


It was not until Napoleon Bonaparte promulgated the Civil Code in 1804 that a single, uniform law was applied to all French citizens. The Civil Code, also known as the Napoleonic Code, rationalised and unified French law, replacing the multiple local customs with a single coherent body of law. The Code was a major achievement in legal history, not only for France but also for many other countries, as it influenced the development of law throughout the world. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in France were marked by a major stage in the codification of customs under royal authority, paving the way for the subsequent unification and standardisation of French law with the Civil Code of 1804.
直到拿破仑-波拿巴于 1804 年颁布了《民法典》,一部统一的法律才适用于所有法国公民。民法典》又称《拿破仑法典》,它将法国法律合理化并统一起来,用一个统一的法律体系取代了多种地方习俗。民法典》是法律史上的一项重大成就,不仅对法国如此,对许多其他国家也是如此,因为它影响了全世界的法律发展。十五世纪和十六世纪,法国在王室的领导下,经历了习俗编纂的重要阶段,为后来 1804 年《民法典》统一和规范法国法律铺平了道路。


The emergence of universities in Europe in the Middle Ages marked a turning point in the development and dissemination of canon law and Roman law, transforming them into veritable 'learned laws'. These educational institutions played a crucial role in the preservation, study and propagation of these legal systems, contributing to their refinement and sophistication. The University of Bologna, founded in the eleventh century, became a major centre for the study of law and gained particular renown for its teaching of canon law and Roman law. In many ways, Bologna was at the heart of the heyday of canon law and the revival of Roman law in Europe. As far as canon law is concerned, the University of Bologna was an important centre of study and development. Canon law, which governs the internal affairs of the Catholic Church, was systematised and taught in depth at this university. Bologna's jurists and theologians have contributed to the interpretation, development and application of canon law, influencing the practice and administration of the Church throughout Europe.
中世纪欧洲大学的出现标志着教会法和罗马法发展和传播的转折点,使其成为名副其实的 "博学之法"。这些教育机构在保存、研究和传播这些法律体系方面发挥了至关重要的作用,促进了它们的完善和发展。创建于十一世纪的博洛尼亚大学成为研究法律的主要中心,并因其教会法和罗马法的教学而声名远播。在许多方面,博洛尼亚都处于教会法全盛时期和罗马法在欧洲复兴的中心。就教会法而言,博洛尼亚大学是一个重要的研究和发展中心。教会法管理天主教会的内部事务,在这所大学得到了系统化和深入的教授。博洛尼亚的法学家和神学家为教会法的解释、发展和应用做出了贡献,影响了整个欧洲教会的实践和管理。


At the same time, the University of Bologna was also the birthplace of the glossator movement, which rediscovered and commented on the Corpus Juris Civilis. This movement marked the renaissance of Roman law in Western Europe. Through their meticulous analysis and detailed commentaries, the glossators revitalised and clarified Roman law, making it accessible and applicable to contemporary realities. Universities were therefore essential in transforming canon law and Roman law into academic disciplines, elevating their study to the rank of legal science. These 'learned laws' not only enriched legal knowledge in Europe, but also laid the foundations for modern legal systems. The apogee of these legal disciplines at the University of Bologna influenced legal thought and practice far beyond Italy, shaping the development of law in Europe for centuries to come.
同时,博洛尼亚大学也是词汇学运动的发源地,该运动重新发现并评论了《民法大全》。这一运动标志着罗马法在西欧的复兴。通过缜密的分析和详细的评注,注释者们重振并澄清了罗马法,使其易于理解并适用于当代现实。因此,大学在将教会法和罗马法转化为学科,将其研究提升为法律科学方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些 "博学的法律 "不仅丰富了欧洲的法律知识,也为现代法律体系奠定了基础。这些法律学科在博洛尼亚大学达到顶峰,对意大利以外的法律思想和实践产生了深远的影响,并在未来几个世纪影响了欧洲法律的发展。


In the mid-twelfth century, a major event in the history of canon law occurred with the compilation of the "Decree of Gratian", also known as the Edict of Gratian. Gratian, a monk and jurist, undertook the ambitious task of collecting and organising all existing canon law into a single compendium. Gratian's Decree marked a fundamental step in the development of canon law by consolidating a multitude of disparate canonical sources, such as papal decrees, the canons of councils, and the writings of the Fathers of the Church. Prior to Gratian's work, canon law was scattered across many different documents, making it complicated to study and apply. By bringing all these sources together in a single systematic work, Gratian created an invaluable pedagogical and legal tool.
12 世纪中叶,教会法史上发生了一件大事,即 "格拉蒂安法令"(又称格拉蒂安敕令)的编纂。格拉蒂安是一位修道士和法学家,他承担了一项雄心勃勃的任务,即收集和整理所有现有的教会法,并将其汇编成一部单一的法典。格拉蒂安的法令整合了教皇法令、大公会议教规和教父著作等众多不同的教会法资料,标志着教会法的发展迈出了根本性的一步。在格拉蒂安完成这项工作之前,教会法分散在许多不同的文件中,使研究和应用变得复杂。格拉蒂安将所有这些资料汇集到一部系统的著作中,创造了一个宝贵的教学和法律工具。


Gratien's Decree quickly established itself as a reference in universities and ecclesiastical courts throughout Europe. It was widely adopted as a teaching manual and a guide to legal practice within the Church. Gratian's organisation and method of reconciling conflicting texts greatly facilitated the understanding of canon law and helped to standardise its application. The influence of Gratian's Decree was such that it became the foundation of the Catholic Church's legal system until the subsequent codification of canon law in the twentieth century. His work played a crucial role in shaping the canonical legal tradition and had a significant impact on the development of law in general. The Gratian Decree remains a fundamental work in the historical study of canon law.
格拉蒂安法令》很快成为欧洲各大学和教会法庭的参考书。它被广泛采用,成为教会内部的教学手册和法律实践指南。格拉蒂安的组织结构和调和矛盾文本的方法极大地促进了对教会法的理解,并有助于规范其应用。格拉蒂安的法令影响深远,成为天主教会法律体系的基础,直至二十世纪教会法的编纂。他的著作在塑造教会法传统方面发挥了至关重要的作用,并对整个法律的发展产生了重大影响。格拉蒂安法令》至今仍是教会法历史研究的基础性著作。


In 1582, a major development in the history of canon law occurred with the publication of the "Corpus Juris Canonici". This collection represented an exhaustive compilation of canon law, encompassing texts and decrees from the "Decree of Gratian" up to that period. The "Corpus Juris Canonici" was not simply a reprint of the "Decree of Gratian", but rather a complete collection that included the Decree itself as well as many other canonical legal sources that had been established since then. This compilation included papal decrees subsequent to Gratian, as well as other important documents and decisions of the Church. The importance of the Corpus Juris Canonici lies in its ability to provide a coherent and organised overview of the legislation of the Catholic Church. By bringing together all these sources into a single whole, the Corpus Juris Canonici has facilitated the study, teaching and application of canon law. This was particularly important as the Church sought to assert its authority and clarify its laws during the Counter-Reformation period.
1582 年,"Corpus Juris Canonici"(《教会法典》)的出版是教会法历史上的一次重大发展。该书是一部详尽的教会法汇编,涵盖了从 "格拉蒂安法令 "到这一时期的文本和法令。教规汇编 "并不是简单地重印 "格拉蒂安法令",而是一个完整的汇编,其中包括该法令本身以及此后制定的许多其他教规法律渊源。该汇编包括格拉蒂安之后的教皇法令以及教会的其他重要文件和决定。教规汇编》的重要性在于它能够对天主教会的立法进行连贯而有条理的概述。通过将所有这些资料汇集成一个整体,《教会法典》为教会法的研究、教学和应用提供了便利。在反宗教改革时期,教会努力维护其权威并澄清其法律,这一点尤为重要。


The publication of the Corpus Juris Canonici also had a significant impact on the subsequent development of canon law. By providing a stable and comprehensive legal reference, it helped to standardise legal practice within the Catholic Church and served as the basis for subsequent reforms and adaptations of canon law. The "Corpus Juris Canonici" remained the standard canonical authority of the Catholic Church until the twentieth century, when the 1917 Code of Canon Law was promulgated, representing a further codification of canon law.
教规汇编》的出版也对教会法的后续发展产生了重大影响。它提供了一个稳定而全面的法律参考资料,有助于规范天主教会内部的法律实践,并为随后的教会法改革和调整奠定了基础。直到二十世纪,代表教会法进一步编纂的 1917 年《教会法典》颁布之前,"Corpus Juris Canonici "一直是天主教会的标准教会法权威。


= The school of modern natural law =
= 现代自然法学派 =


In the modern era, a significant evolution in legal thought emerged with the development of a new conception of natural law. This approach to law differs from previous conceptions in that it sees law as being founded on a set of universal fundamental principles inherent in human nature and reason. According to this perspective, positive law, i.e. the law established and applied by societies, should be derived directly from these principles of natural law. This new approach to natural law was influenced by the work of philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and, later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These thinkers put forward the idea that certain rights and principles are natural and universal, such as the right to life, liberty and property. These rights are not granted by governments or institutions, but are inherent to the human condition.
近代以来,随着自然法新概念的发展,法律思想发生了重大演变。这种法律方法不同于以往的概念,它认为法律是建立在人类本性和理性所固有的一套普遍基本原则之上的。根据这一观点,实在法,即社会制定和适用的法律,应直接源于这些自然法原则。这种对待自然法的新方法受到了托马斯-霍布斯、约翰-洛克以及后来的让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家的影响。这些思想家提出了这样的观点,即某些权利和原则是自然的、普遍的,如生命权、自由权和财产权。这些权利不是政府或机构赋予的,而是人类与生俱来的。


According to this view, positive law should be an expression of these natural rights and principles. In other words, the laws created by governments and institutions should be in harmony with, and derived from, fundamental natural rights and the principles of universal justice. When positive law is at odds with these natural principles, it is considered unjust or illegitimate. This new conception of natural law has had a profound impact on the development of law and legal theory. In particular, it influenced the formation of theories of human rights and played a key role in the conceptualisation of modern democratic constitutions, such as those of the United States and France after the Revolution. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, for example, clearly reflects the influence of these ideas of natural law.
根据这一观点,实在法应是这些自然权利和原则的体现。换句话说,政府和机构制定的法律应与基本的自然权利和普遍正义原则保持一致,并从这些权利和原则中衍生出来。当实在法与这些自然原则相抵触时,就会被认为是不公正或不合法的。这种新的自然法概念对法律和法律理论的发展产生了深远的影响。特别是,它影响了人权理论的形成,并在现代民主宪法(如大革命后美国和法国的宪法)的概念化过程中发挥了关键作用。例如,1789 年的法国《人权和公民权利宣言》就清楚地反映了这些自然法思想的影响。


The modern school of natural law, which flourished between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, represents a philosophical and legal approach that seeks to establish the foundations of law and justice on the basis of principles derived from human nature and reason. The thinkers of this school adopted a rational and critical approach to exploring and understanding the fundamental aspects of human existence and deducing universal legal principles from them. Authors of the modern natural law school, such as Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, sought to identify principles that they believed were self-evident or innate in human nature. These principles are considered to be the foundations on which all other legal rules rest. For example, Locke's concept that individuals have inalienable rights to life, liberty and property is a typical example of this kind of fundamental principle. The approach of these thinkers was to use an analysis of the human condition - its needs, aspirations and ability to reason - as a basis for establishing fundamental rights and duties. These natural rights and duties would then serve as the basis for the creation of positive law, i.e. the law established by societies and governments. The idea was that laws and legal systems should reflect these natural principles if they were to be just and legitimate.
现代自然法学派兴盛于十七世纪和十八世纪之间,代表了一种哲学和法律方法,旨在根据源自人性和理性的原则建立法律和正义的基础。该学派的思想家们采用理性和批判的方法来探索和理解人类存在的基本方面,并从中推导出普遍的法律原则。现代自然法学派的作者,如雨果-格劳秀斯、托马斯-霍布斯、约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭,试图找出他们认为不言而喻或与生俱来的人性原则。这些原则被认为是所有其他法律规则的基础。例如,洛克关于个人拥有不可剥夺的生命权、自由权和财产权的概念就是这类基本原则的典型例子。这些思想家的方法是通过分析人类的状况--其需求、愿望和理性能力--作为确立基本权利和义务的基础。然后,这些自然权利义务将作为制定实在法(即社会和政府制定的法律)的基础。这种观点认为,法律和法律制度若要公正合法,就应反映这些自然原则。


This approach marked a break with previous conceptions of law, which often relied more on tradition, authority or divine revelation. It also helped to shape the philosophical foundations of modern democracies, particularly in terms of human rights and governance. The authors of the modern natural law school played a key role in the transition to a more rational and universal understanding of law. Their efforts to deduce legal principles from a study of human nature have profoundly influenced the development of law and legal thought in the contemporary world.
这种方法标志着与以往法律概念的决裂,以往的法律概念往往更多地依赖于传统、权威或神的启示。它还有助于塑造现代民主的哲学基础,特别是在人权和治理方面。现代自然法学派的作者们在向更理性、更普遍的法律理解过渡的过程中发挥了关键作用。他们努力从对人性的研究中推导出法律原则,对当代世界法律和法律思想的发展产生了深远影响。


Hugo Grotius, also known as Hugo de Groot, is a central figure of the modern school of natural law and is often regarded as the father of international law. His most famous contribution to jurisprudence is his work De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace), published in 1625. This treatise became a founding text in the field of international law and had a profound influence on the development of international legislation. In "De Jure Belli ac Pacis", Grotius explores the principles of natural law and their application to war and peace. He addresses issues such as the just causes of war, the rules of conduct in war, and the foundations of a just peace. One of Grotius's major contributions is the idea that certain laws and principles are universal and apply to all peoples, regardless of the specific laws of their country. This idea laid the foundations for the modern concept of international law, which governs relations between nations.
雨果-格劳秀斯,又名雨果-德-格鲁特,是现代自然法学派的核心人物,常被视为国际法之父。他对法理学最有名的贡献是其于 1625 年出版的著作《战争与和平法》(De Jure Belli ac Pacis)。这部论文成为国际法领域的奠基之作,对国际立法的发展产生了深远影响。在《战争与和平法》中,格劳秀斯探讨了自然法原则及其在战争与和平中的应用。他探讨了战争的正当原因、战争中的行为规则以及公正和平的基础等问题。格劳秀斯的主要贡献之一是,他认为某些法律和原则具有普遍性,适用于所有人,无论其所在国家的具体法律如何。这一思想为规范国家间关系的现代国际法概念奠定了基础。


Grotius also defined the concept of sovereign power in his treatise. According to him, sovereignty is characterised by autonomy and independence: a sovereign authority is one whose acts do not depend on any higher power and cannot be annulled by any other human will. This definition had a significant impact on the theory of the state and the notion of national sovereignty, key concepts in the formation of modern nation states. Grotius' work not only laid the foundations of international law, but also influenced political and legal thought in many other areas. His ideas on natural law, sovereignty, and the laws governing war and peace continue to be relevant and are studied in the fields of law, international relations and political philosophy.
格劳秀斯还在他的论文中定义了主权的概念。他认为,主权的特点是自主和独立:主权当局的行为不依赖于任何更高的权力,也不能被任何其他人类意志所废除。这一定义对国家理论和国家主权概念产生了重大影响,而国家主权是现代民族国家形成的关键概念。格劳秀斯的著作不仅奠定了国际法的基础,还影响了许多其他领域的政治和法律思想。他关于自然法、主权以及战争与和平法律的思想至今仍具有现实意义,并被法律、国际关系和政治哲学领域所研究。


The notion that states should be self-limiting in their international relations is a fundamental principle of global governance and international law. This idea, influenced by the work of thinkers such as Hugo Grotius, emphasises that although states are sovereign entities, they are also members of an international community governed by common laws and norms. According to this perspective, states, in their collaboration and interactions, should adhere to a framework of international law that limits their actions for the common good. This implies the recognition of and respect for certain rules and conventions that regulate the behaviour of states on the international scene. These rules may concern various aspects of international relations, including, but not limited to, the rules of war, treaties, human rights and international trade.
国家在国际关系中应自我限制的理念是全球治理和国际法的基本原则。受雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)等思想家著作的影响,这一观点强调,尽管国家是主权实体,但它们也是受共同法律和规范制约的国际社会的成员。根据这一观点,各国在合作与互动中应遵守国际法框架,该框架限制各国为共同利益而采取的行动。这意味着承认并尊重某些规范国家在国际舞台上行为的规则和公约。这些规则可能涉及国际关系的各个方面,包括但不限于战争规则、条约、人权和国际贸易。


Adherence to a system of international law creates a more predictable and stable environment, where states can interact peacefully and constructively. It also helps to prevent conflict and manage disagreements in a more civilised and equitable manner. By agreeing to limit themselves within a shared legal framework, states recognise that their own interests are best served in a context of mutual respect and cooperation. This idea of an international society governed by law plays a crucial role in efforts to maintain international peace and security. It is at the heart of many international institutions, such as the United Nations, and international treaties, which seek to frame and regulate interactions between states to promote collective well-being and the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
遵守国际法体系可以创造一个更可预测、更稳定的环境,使各国能够和平、建设性地互动。它还有助于预防冲突,以更文明、更公平的方式处理分歧。通过同意将自己限制在一个共同的法律框架内,各国认识到,在相互尊重与合作的背景下,自身的利益才能得到最好的维护。法治国际社会的理念在维护国际和平与安全的努力中发挥着至关重要的作用。它是许多国际机构(如联合国)和国际条约的核心,这些国际机构和条约旨在构建和规范国家间的互动,以促进集体福祉及和平解决冲突。


Hugo Grotius's conception of natural law is distinguished by its insistence on the intrinsically rational and universal nature of certain legal norms and principles. For Grotius, natural law is intimately linked to man's nature and capacity for reason. He maintains that certain principles are so fundamental that they are recognised by all human societies, independently of the particular laws established by each state or community. According to Grotius, the strength of natural law lies in its ability to transcend different local laws and customs. This right does not depend on divine will or any other external authority; rather, it is inherent in the human condition itself. Grotius argues that even God cannot make good what is intrinsically evil or contrary to human nature and society. In other words, there are fundamental moral and legal principles that are inalienable and immutable, even by divine authority.
雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)的自然法概念的特点是坚持某些法律规范和原则的内在合理性和普遍性。在格劳秀斯看来,自然法与人的本性和理性能力密切相关。他认为,某些原则是如此根本,以至于它们得到了所有人类社会的认可,而与每个国家或社区制定的特定法律无关。格劳秀斯认为,自然法的力量在于它能够超越不同的地方法律和习俗。这种权利并不依赖于神的意志或任何其他外部权威,而是人类自身所固有的。格劳秀斯认为,即使是上帝也无法使本质上邪恶或违背人类本性和社会的东西成为善。换句话说,有些基本的道德和法律原则是不可剥夺和永恒不变的,即使是神的权威也是如此。


This perspective marks a turning point in legal thought, as it establishes natural law as a universal frame of reference for judging the justice and legitimacy of human laws. Natural law, in this view, serves as a yardstick for assessing the morality and validity of positive laws, those created by human societies. Grotius's approach had a profound impact on legal and political theory. It paved the way for the later development of theories of human rights and international law, emphasising the idea that certain rights and principles are universal and must be respected by all societies and governments. This vision influenced the way in which later thinkers conceived of fundamental rights and justice, and continues to be a cornerstone of contemporary legal thought.
这一观点标志着法律思想的转折点,因为它将自然法确立为判断人类法律正义性与合法性的普遍参照基准。这种观点认为,自然法是评估实在法(由人类社会制定的法律)的道德性和有效性的标准。格劳秀斯的方法对法律和政治理论产生了深远的影响。它为后来人权和国际法理论的发展铺平了道路,强调某些权利和原则具有普遍性,必须得到所有社会和政府的尊重。这种观点影响了后来的思想家对基本权利和正义的理解,并一直是当代法律思想的基石。


The conception of natural law developed by Hugo Grotius and other thinkers of his time is based on the idea that natural law is a set of universal and invariable principles that do not depend on divine will or any other external authority. For Grotius, natural law is a constant, just like the laws of nature, and constitutes a higher ideal of justice that applies to all human beings, regardless of their culture, religion or political system. From this perspective, natural law is immutable and universal. It transcends the positive laws created by human societies and serves as a reference for assessing their fairness and legitimacy. This vision suggests that certain truths and moral principles are inherent to the human condition and must be respected by all forms of governance and legislation.
雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)及其同时代的其他思想家提出的自然法概念基于这样一种思想,即自然法是一套普遍的、不变的原则,不依赖于神的意志或任何其他外部权威。在格劳秀斯看来,自然法与自然法则一样,是一种恒定不变的原则,它构成了一种更高的正义理想,适用于所有人,无论其文化、宗教或政治制度如何。从这个角度来看,自然法是永恒不变的,具有普遍性。它超越人类社会创造的实在法,是评估其公平性和合法性的参照。这种观点认为,某些真理和道德原则是人类与生俱来的,所有形式的治理和立法都必须尊重。


Grotius and his contemporaries in the modern school of natural law thus established the idea that, although human laws may vary from place to place, there are fundamental principles of justice and morality that are universal. These principles should guide the creation and application of laws, thus ensuring that legal and political systems serve the fundamental interests of humanity and respect the inalienable rights of the individual. This conception of natural law has had a considerable influence on the subsequent development of theories of human rights and international law. It provided a philosophical basis for arguing in favour of universal and inalienable rights, and significantly influenced the drafting of documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In short, Grotius's vision of natural law as a set of superior and immutable principles has been essential in shaping the ethical and legal framework of the modern world.
因此,格劳秀斯及其同时代的现代自然法学派确立了这样一种理念,即尽管人类法律可能因地而异,但存在着普遍适用的基本正义和道德原则。这些原则应指导法律的制定和适用,从而确保法律和政治制度服务于人类的根本利益,尊重个人不可剥夺的权利。自然法的这一概念对后来人权和国际法理论的发展产生了相当大的影响。它为主张普遍和不可剥夺的权利提供了哲学基础,并对《世界人权宣言》等文件的起草产生了重大影响。总之,格劳秀斯将自然法视为一套优越的、永恒不变的原则,这对塑造现代世界的伦理和法律框架至关重要。


The principle of "Pacta sunt servanda", which literally translates as "agreements must be respected", is one of the essential foundations of natural law and, by extension, of modern international law. This principle stipulates that agreements and treaties concluded in good faith between the parties must be honoured and executed in accordance with their spirit and letter. In the thinking of Grotius and other natural law jurists, "Pacta sunt servanda" is more than just a legal rule; it represents a fundamental moral principle reflecting reliability and integrity in human relations. This notion is based on the idea that the word given and the commitments made must be respected, as they form the basis of trust and cooperation in any society. This principle is crucial in the context of international relations, where it serves as a pillar for the development and maintenance of international treaties and agreements. By recognising and applying "Pacta sunt servanda", states and international actors accept that commitments made must be respected, thus creating a framework of stability and predictability that is essential for international cooperation. The importance of "Pacta sunt servanda" is not limited to the field of international law. It is also applicable in civil law, where it underpins the principles of contractualisation and contract enforcement. This principle ensures that parties to contracts are bound by their agreements and are obliged to respect their contractual commitments.
Pacta sunt servanda""条约必须遵守")原则的字面意思是 "协议必须得到尊重",它是自然法乃至现代国际法的重要基础之一。该原则规定,当事方之间真诚缔结的协议和条约必须按照其精神和文字得到遵守和执行。在格劳秀斯和其他自然法法学家的思想中,"条约必须遵守 "不仅仅是一项法律规则,它还代表了一项基本的道德原则,反映了人类关系中的可靠性和诚信。这一概念基于这样一种思想,即言词和承诺必须得到尊重,因为它们是任何社会中信任与合作的基础。这一原则在国际关系中至关重要,是制定和维护国际条约和协定的支柱。通过承认和执行 "条约必须遵守 "原则,国家和国际行为者承认所做的承诺必须得到遵守,从而建立了一个对国际合作至关重要的稳定和可预测性框架。条约必须遵守 "的重要性不仅限于国际法领域。它也适用于民法,是契约化和合同执行原则的基础。该原则确保合同各方受其协议的约束,并有义务遵守其合同承诺。


Hugo Grotius is often celebrated as one of the first to formulate universal principles of natural law, but the elaboration of these principles into a rational and autonomous legal system is attributed to Samuel Pufendorf, another eminent philosopher of natural law. Samuel Pufendorf, who lived in the seventeenth century, made a significant contribution to the theory of modern natural law. He proposed a legal system based on observation and rational deduction, a system that emphasised the importance of human experience and reason in understanding the law. Pufendorf differentiated his approach from that of his predecessors by emphasising a more empirical and less theological analysis of natural law. For Pufendorf, natural law was not simply a set of universal moral principles; it was also a logical and coherent system that could be understood and applied through the use of human reason. His work marked an important step towards a more secular and rationalist view of natural law, moving away from the theological underpinnings that had often characterised earlier discussions on the subject. Pufendorf also emphasised the importance of social relations and sociability in understanding natural law. In his view, human beings are by nature social creatures, and natural law must take account of this social dimension of human existence. His writings emphasised the need for rules and norms to regulate human interaction, recognising that these rules are essential for maintaining order and stability in society. While Grotius laid the foundations for the modern theory of natural law, it was Samuel Pufendorf who developed these ideas into a rational and autonomous legal system. His approach significantly influenced the subsequent development of natural law and contributed to the foundation of modern legal and political philosophy.
雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)通常被誉为最早提出自然法普遍原则的人之一,但将这些原则阐述为一个合理而自主的法律体系的,则是另一位杰出的自然法哲学家塞缪尔-普芬道夫(Samuel Pufendorf)。塞缪尔-普芬道夫生活在 17 世纪,对现代自然法理论做出了重大贡献。他提出了一种基于观察和理性演绎的法律体系,这一体系强调人类经验和理性在理解法律方面的重要性。普芬道夫的方法有别于他的前辈,他强调对自然法进行更多的经验分析,而不是神学分析。在普芬道夫看来,自然法不仅仅是一套普遍的道德原则,它还是一个逻辑连贯的体系,可以通过人类的理性来理解和应用。他的著作标志着他朝着更加世俗化和理性主义的自然法观点迈出了重要一步,摆脱了神学基础,而神学基础往往是早先关于这一主题讨论的特点。普芬道夫还强调了社会关系和社会性对理解自然法的重要性。他认为,人类本质上是社会性的动物,自然法必须考虑到人类生存的这一社会维度。他的著作强调需要规则和规范来调节人与人之间的互动,承认这些规则对于维护社会秩序和稳定至关重要。虽然格劳秀斯为现代自然法理论奠定了基础,但塞缪尔-普芬道夫则将这些思想发展成为一个理性和自主的法律体系。他的方法对自然法后来的发展产生了重大影响,并为现代法律和政治哲学的基础做出了贡献。


Christian Wolff, an eighteenth-century German philosopher and jurist, was a leading disciple of the natural law school and made a significant contribution to the development of this theory. Influenced by the work of Samuel Pufendorf, Wolff deepened the conceptualisation of natural law by approaching it with a rigorous scientific method, characterised by logical and detailed deductions. Wolff's approach to natural law was methodical and systematic. He sought to define the principles of natural law precisely and comprehensively, applying techniques of scientific reasoning to establish a coherent set of legal rules. Wolff saw law not only as a set of norms and rules, but also as a logical and scientific system that could be understood and explained by human reason. His vision of law as a logical system had a significant influence on legal practice in continental Europe. By insisting on logic and order in the development of laws and legal systems, Wolff contributed to the formalisation of legal practice, encouraging a more structured and systematic approach to the application and interpretation of law. Wolff's influence also extended to judicial systems, where his emphasis on logical deduction based on a fundamental order encouraged a more rigorous and methodical approach to the law. This has led to greater predictability and consistency in the resolution of legal disputes, as well as a better structuring of legal systems. Christian Wolff played a crucial role in the development of natural law theory and greatly influenced the way the law was understood and practised, particularly in continental Europe. His rigorous methodology and systematic approach left a lasting imprint on legal philosophy and judicial practice.
克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫(Christian Wolff)是十八世纪德国哲学家和法学家,是自然法学派的主要弟子,为这一理论的发展做出了重大贡献。沃尔夫受塞缪尔-普芬多夫著作的影响,以严谨的科学方法,通过逻辑和详细的演绎,深化了自然法的概念。沃尔夫研究自然法的方法是有条不紊和系统化的。他试图准确而全面地定义自然法的原则,运用科学推理的技巧建立一套连贯的法律规则。沃尔夫认为法律不仅是一套规范和规则,也是一个可以用人类理性来理解和解释的逻辑和科学体系。他将法律视为一个逻辑体系的观点对欧洲大陆的法律实践产生了重大影响。沃尔夫坚持法律和法律体系发展过程中的逻辑和秩序,促进了法律实践的正规化,鼓励以更有条理和系统的方法来适用和解释法律。沃尔夫的影响还延伸到了司法系统,他对基于基本秩序的逻辑演绎的强调,鼓励了一种更加严谨和有条不紊的法律方法。这使得法律纠纷的解决具有更高的可预测性和一致性,法律体系的结构也更加完善。克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫在自然法理论的发展过程中发挥了至关重要的作用,并极大地影响了人们理解和实践法律的方式,尤其是在欧洲大陆。他严谨的方法论和系统的方法在法律哲学和司法实践中留下了持久的印记。


Philosophers of the social contract, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, played a crucial role in the development of modern political and legal thought, following in the footsteps of the natural law school. These thinkers put forward the idea that the legitimacy of governments rests on the voluntary consent of individuals. According to them, political and governmental structures must be based on mutual agreement between the governed and those who govern. John Locke, in particular, was an influential advocate of this approach. For Locke, government is legitimate only if it is the product of the voluntary agreement of individuals. In his view, people consent to government in order to preserve their natural rights, such as the right to life, liberty and property. This consent is not a concession of rights, but rather a strategy to better protect them. Locke argued that governments exist to serve the interests of their citizens, and in particular to protect these natural rights. Jean-Jacques Rousseau also explored similar themes, although his approach differed in some respects. In his work On the Social Contract, Rousseau emphasised the idea of the general will as the basis of political legitimacy. In his view, a legitimate government should reflect the collective will of the community, rather than the particular interests of a few. The theories of Locke and Rousseau had a profound influence on the formation of the concepts of human rights and democracy. Their ideas on the social contract formed the basis of the modern notion of popular sovereignty and representative government. These concepts were incorporated into the fundamental principles of modern democracies and influenced the drafting of important documents such as the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
-雅克-卢梭和约翰-洛克等社会契约哲学家追随自然法学派的脚步,在现代政治和法律思想的发展中发挥了至关重要的作用。这些思想家提出了政府的合法性取决于个人自愿同意的观点。根据他们的观点,政治和政府结构必须建立在被统治者和统治者之间的相互协议之上。约翰-洛克(John Locke)尤其是这一观点的倡导者。洛克认为,只有当政府是个人自愿协议的产物时,它才是合法的。在他看来,人们同意政府是为了维护他们的自然权利,如生命权、自由权和财产权。这种同意不是对权利的让步,而是更好地保护权利的策略。洛克认为,政府的存在是为了服务于公民的利益,尤其是为了保护这些自然权利。让-雅克-卢梭也探讨了类似的主题,尽管他的方法在某些方面有所不同。卢梭在其著作《论社会契约论》中强调,普遍意志是政治合法性的基础。他认为,一个合法的政府应该反映社会的集体意志,而不是少数人的特殊利益。洛克和卢梭的理论对人权和民主概念的形成产生了深远的影响。他们关于社会契约的思想构成了现代人民主权和代议制政府概念的基础。这些理念被纳入现代民主国家的基本原则,并影响了美国《独立宣言》和法国《人权和公民权利宣言》等重要文件的起草。


Before the great codifications of the eighteenth century, continental European law was an amalgam of diverse legal systems and traditions. This complexity reflected the rich and varied history of Europe, where different legal influences intermingled over time. Roman law, the legacy of the Roman Empire, continued to exert a significant influence, particularly in the countries of southern Europe. Reinterpreted by legal glossators and humanists, this ancient law formed the basis of many legal systems, particularly in Italy. Its elaborate principles and systematic methodology played a key role in the formation of continental civil law. At the same time, canon law, which governed the affairs of the Catholic Church, also influenced continental law. Universities, often linked to the Church, were centres for the study and dissemination of canon law. This legal system had a significant influence in areas such as family and inheritance law. In northern and western Europe, customary law, often derived from Germanic traditions, predominated. These local legal systems were based on ancestral practices and were gradually formalised in documents such as customary law. For example, the "Coutumier de Normandie" in France was a notable effort to codify local laws and customs.
在十八世纪大法典编纂之前,欧洲大陆的法律是各种法律制度和传统的混合体。这种复杂性反映了欧洲丰富多彩的历史,不同的法律影响随着时间的推移交织在一起。罗马帝国遗留下来的罗马法继续发挥着重要影响,尤其是在南欧国家。这部古代法律经过法律注释者和人文主义者的重新诠释,形成了许多法律体系的基础,尤其是在意大利。其详尽的原则和系统的方法在大陆民法的形成过程中发挥了关键作用。与此同时,管理天主教会事务的教会法也对欧洲大陆的法律产生了影响。通常与教会有联系的大学是研究和传播教会法的中心。这一法律体系对家庭法和继承法等领域产生了重大影响。在北欧和西欧,通常源于日耳曼传统的习惯法占主导地位。这些地方法律体系以祖先的习俗为基础,并逐渐在习惯法等文件中正式化。例如,法国的 "诺曼底法典"(Coutumier de Normandie)就是编纂地方法律和习俗的一个显著成果。


In addition, the school of modern natural law, with thinkers such as Grotius, Pufendorf, and Wolff, brought a new dimension to continental law. This school introduced the idea of universal legal principles based on reason and human nature. Their work influenced legal thought by introducing more abstract and universal concepts, which served as a basis for rationalising legal systems. These various elements - Roman law, canon law, customary law and modern natural law - coexisted in a complex and sometimes contradictory relationship, making the European legal landscape particularly diverse. The codifications of the eighteenth century, such as the famous French Civil Code of 1804, sought to unify and systematise these diverse traditions. These codification efforts marked an important stage in the history of continental law, rationalising and modernising legal systems to make them more coherent and accessible.
此外,以格老秀斯、普芬多夫和沃尔夫等思想家为代表的现代自然法学派为大陆法带来了新的内容。该学派提出了基于理性和人性的普遍法律原则的思想。他们的著作影响了法律思想,引入了更为抽象和普遍的概念,作为法律体系合理化的基础。这些不同的元素--罗马法、教会法、习惯法和现代自然法--共存于一种复杂的、有时甚至是相互矛盾的关系中,使得欧洲的法律格局尤为多样化。十八世纪的法典编纂,如著名的 1804 年《法国民法典》,试图统一这些不同的传统并使之系统化。这些法典编纂工作标志着欧洲大陆法律史上的一个重要阶段,它使法律体系合理化和现代化,使其更加连贯和易懂。


The influence of the modern natural law school on the development of both private and public law is deeply rooted in the principle of equality between individuals. This principle, which emerged from reflection on the natural and inalienable rights of man, had a considerable impact on the formation of legal systems and government structures, particularly from the eighteenth century onwards. In the field of private law, the principle of equality has influenced the way in which laws treat individuals in terms of civil rights and transactions. It has challenged and often modified legal practices that drew distinctions based on birth, social status or other arbitrary criteria. This approach has led to a broader recognition of the equality of parties in contracts, property rights and other private legal relationships.
现代自然法学派对私法和公法发展的影响深深植根于个人平等原则。这一原则产生于对人的自然和不可剥夺的权利的思考,对法律制度和政府结构的形成产生了相当大的影响,尤其是从十八世纪开始。在私法领域,平等原则影响了法律在公民权利和交易方面对待个人的方式。平等原则对那些基于出身、社会地位或其他任意标准进行区分的法律惯例提出了挑战,并经常对其进行修改。这种做法促使人们更广泛地承认合同、财产权和其他私人法律关系中各方的平等。


In the field of public law, the principle of equality has had an even more profound influence, particularly in the development of modern constitutions. The United States Declaration of Independence of 1776, with its famous assertion that all men are created equal, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, which proclaims the equality of all citizens before the law, are emblematic examples of the application of this principle in public law. These and similar constitutional documents establish equality as a fundamental principle of the legal and political order. They formed the basis for the abolition of unequal legal and social structures, such as feudalism and serfdom in Europe, and provided a framework for combating discrimination and injustice in modern societies. The principle of equality, as developed by the modern school of natural law, has therefore played a crucial role in the transition to more democratic and egalitarian societies. It has influenced not only legal and political theories, but also concrete practices of governance and legislation, helping to shape the evolution of modern democracies and respect for human rights worldwide.
在公法领域,平等原则产生了更为深远的影响,尤其是在现代宪法的制定过程中。美国 1776 年的《独立宣言》和法国 1789 年的《人权和公民权 利宣言》,前者提出了 "人人生而平等 "的著名论断,后者则宣布所有公民在法律面前一律平等。这些文件和类似的宪法文件将平等确立为法律和政治秩序的基本原则。它们为废除不平等的法律和社会结构(如欧洲的封建主义和农奴制)奠定了基础,并为打击现代社会中的歧视和不公正现象提供了框架。因此,由现代自然法学派发展起来的平等原则在向更加民主和平等的社会过渡的过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。它不仅影响了法律和政治理论,也影响了治理和立法的具体实践,帮助塑造了现代民主的发展和全世界对人权的尊重。


Over the centuries, Geneva has represented a fascinating microcosm of the evolution and interaction of legal systems in Europe. Prior to the standardisation of the law with the great codifications, the city witnessed the complex coexistence of several legal systems and traditions.
几个世纪以来,日内瓦一直是欧洲法律体系演变和互动的精彩缩影。在大法典实现法律标准化之前,这座城市见证了多种法律体系和传统的复杂共存。


Roman law, with its ancient roots and widespread influence, was applied in Geneva in many areas, particularly those of civil law. Its sophisticated principles and rules concerning property, contracts and inheritance were a fundamental pillar of the legal system. The depth and complexity of Roman law made it particularly well-suited to the regulation of legal affairs in an urban and commercial society such as Geneva. At the same time, for specific aspects such as construction, Geneva referred to the Custom of Paris. This custom, one of the most important in France, provided a set of rules and practices to govern specific areas, showing how local law could complement Roman law by providing solutions tailored to the specific needs of the community. Before the Protestant Reformation, canon law also played an important role in Geneva. This legal system, which governed not only religious affairs but also certain aspects of civil life such as marriage, had a significant influence on the city's legislation and social practices.
罗马法源远流长,影响广泛,在日内瓦的许多领域都得到了应用,尤其是民法领域。其有关财产、合同和继承的复杂原则和规则是法律体系的基本支柱。罗马法的深刻性和复杂性使其特别适合于规范像日内瓦这样的城市和商业社会的法律事务。与此同时,在建筑等具体方面,日内瓦参考了《巴黎习惯》。这一习俗是法国最重要的习俗之一,它提供了一套管理特定领域的规则和惯例,展示了地方法律如何通过提供适合社区特定需求的解决方案来补充罗马法。在新教改革之前,教会法在日内瓦也发挥了重要作用。这一法律体系不仅管理宗教事务,还管理婚姻等民事生活的某些方面,对该市的立法和社会实践产生了重大影响。


With the advent and development of the modern school of natural law, new principles began to permeate Geneva's legal system. The ideas of universal natural rights, popular sovereignty and the social contract, promoted by thinkers such as Grotius, Pufendorf and Wolff, found particular resonance in Geneva, especially after the Reformation. These concepts gradually influenced legal and political practice, introducing notions of inalienable rights and individual autonomy. Geneva's legal history is therefore a fascinating example of how different legal influences - Roman law, the custom of Paris, canon law and the ideas of modern natural law - can coexist and interact. This coexistence has shaped a unique legal landscape, reflecting both the diversity and the dynamics of legal development in Europe.
随着现代自然法学派的出现和发展,新的原则开始渗透到日内瓦的法律体系中。格劳秀斯、普芬多夫和沃尔夫等思想家倡导的普遍自然权利、人民主权和社会契约等思想在日内瓦引起了特别的反响,尤其是在宗教改革之后。这些概念逐渐影响了法律和政治实践,引入了不可剥夺的权利和个人自治的概念。因此,日内瓦的法律史是不同法律影响--罗马法、巴黎风俗、教会法和现代自然法思想--如何共存和互动的精彩范例。这种共存形成了独特的法律景观,反映了欧洲法律发展的多样性和动态性。


The development of law in Europe, and in Geneva in particular, is not limited solely to the influences of Roman law, canon law, customary law and the ideas of the school of modern natural law. Another crucial element to consider is national law, which takes different forms depending on the region and political structure. In the Holy Roman Empire, for example, national law consisted of imperial laws. These laws were promulgated by the emperor and the imperial institutions, and their scope extended across the various territories of the Empire. They constituted an additional layer of legislation, often coexisting with local and regional legal systems. For Geneva, national law took the form of statutes adopted by the Genevan sovereign. These statutes were laws specific to the city-state of Geneva, reflecting its particular political, social and economic features. The development of these local statutes was an important aspect of the city's autonomy and governance, especially after its emancipation from the domination of the Duchy of Savoy and its alliance with the Swiss cantons.
欧洲,尤其是日内瓦的法律发展并不局限于罗马法、教会法、习惯法和现代自然法学派思想的影响。另一个需要考虑的关键因素是国家法,它因地区和政治结构的不同而采取不同的形式。例如,在神圣罗马帝国,国内法由帝国法律组成。这些法律由皇帝和帝国机构颁布,其适用范围遍及帝国的各个领土。它们构成了额外的立法层,通常与地方和区域法律体系共存。在日内瓦,国家法律的形式是日内瓦君主通过的法规。这些法规是日内瓦城邦特有的法律,反映了其特殊的政治、社会和经济特征。这些地方法规的制定是日内瓦自治和管理的一个重要方面,尤其是在日内瓦摆脱萨瓦公国的统治并与瑞士各州结盟之后。


In the Swiss cantons, national law was represented by regulations and adopted charters. Each canton had its own laws and regulations governing local affairs. These documents, often the result of long traditions and negotiations between various social and political groups, were crucial to the maintenance of order and social organisation within each canton. These different forms of national law, whether the imperial laws of the Holy Roman Empire, the statutes of Geneva or the regulations of the Swiss cantons, show how the law evolved and adapted to the specific political and social realities of each region. They complemented and interacted with other layers of law - Roman, canonical, customary and natural - to form a complex, multi-layered legal system, characteristic of Europe before the great legal codifications of the nineteenth century.
在瑞士各州,国家法律以法规和通过的宪章为代表。每个州都有自己的法律和法规来管理当地事务。这些文件往往是不同社会和政治团体之间长期传统和协商的结果,对于维护各州的秩序和社会组织至关重要。这些不同形式的国家法律,无论是神圣罗马帝国的帝国法律、日内瓦法规还是瑞士各州的规章制度,都表明了法律是如何演变并适应各地区特定的政治和社会现实的。它们与其他层次的法律--罗马法、教会法、习惯法和自然法--相互补充、相互作用,形成了一个复杂、多层次的法律体系,这也是十九世纪大法典编纂之前欧洲的特点。


The late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Europe were marked by an unprecedented legal codification movement, largely influenced by the ideas of the modern natural law school. This movement aimed to simplify, systematise and unify the various existing laws and legal practices through clear and accessible written codes. The first codification efforts were made in Germany, reflecting the trend towards rationalising the law in accordance with the principles of natural law. Austria, for example, was one of the first states to adopt this approach, introducing a Civil Code in 1811 to regulate civil matters, and establishing a Penal Code in 1786 and a Code of Criminal Procedure in 1788. These codes represented a significant modernisation of the legal system, moving away from traditional and heterogeneous norms. Prussia did not remain on the sidelines of this trend and drew up its own code, which was finalised in 1894. The Prussian Code was an ambitious project aimed at unifying and rationalising the law within the state, illustrating a commitment to a more organised and coherent legal system. In France, the codification movement culminated in the promulgation of the Civil Code in 1804, commonly known as the Napoleonic Code. This code profoundly transformed French civil law, establishing clear rules for civil rights, property and the family. The French Civil Code was admired and adopted, in various forms, in many other countries, becoming a model for global legal development. In addition to the Civil Code, France also introduced a Penal Code in 1791 and a Commercial Code in 1807, consolidating its legislation in other key areas.
十八世纪末和十九世纪初,欧洲掀起了一场前所未有的法律编纂运动,这场运动主要受到现代自然法学派思想的影响。这场运动旨在通过清晰易懂的书面法典,简化、系统化和统一现有的各种法律和法律惯例。最早的编纂工作是在德国进行的,反映了根据自然法原则使法律合理化的趋势。例如,奥地利是最早采用这种方法的国家之一,1811 年颁布了《民法典》以规范民事问题,1786 年制定了《刑法典》,1788 年制定了《刑事诉讼法典》。这些法典代表了法律制度的重大现代化,摒弃了传统的异质规范。普鲁士也没有置身事外,制定了自己的法典,并于 1894 年定稿。普鲁士法典》是一项雄心勃勃的计划,旨在统一国家内部的法律并使之合理化,表明了对建立一个更有组织、更连贯的法律体系的承诺。在法国,法典编纂运动以 1804 年颁布《民法典》(俗称《拿破仑法典》)而达到高潮。这部法典深刻地改变了法国的民法,为公民权利、财产和家庭制定了明确的规则。法国民法典》受到许多其他国家的推崇,并以各种形式被采纳,成为全球法律发展的典范。除《民法典》外,法国还于 1791 年颁布了《刑法典》,1807 年颁布了《商法典》,巩固了其他重要领域的立法。


These codification initiatives marked a significant break with previous legal practice. By replacing the complexity of local and customary laws with unified codes, these reforms made the law more accessible and comprehensible to citizens, while ensuring greater consistency and logic in the application of the law. These codes were not simply compilations of existing laws; they represented a fundamental reorganisation of legislation based on principles of clarity, logic and universality, embodying the ideas of natural law in legal practice and leaving a lasting legacy in the field of law.
这些法典编纂举措标志着与以往法律实践的重大突破。这些改革用统一的法典取代了复杂的地方法律和习惯法,使公民更容易理解和使用法律,同时确保法律适用的一致性和逻辑性。这些法典并不是对现有法律的简单汇编,而是基于明确性、逻辑性和普遍性原则对立法进行的根本性重组,在法律实践中体现了自然法思想,并在法律领域留下了持久的遗产。


The modern notion of codification, as embodied in contemporary legal codes, represents a significant departure from earlier methods of compiling and organising the law. This modern approach to legal codification is based on several fundamental principles that reflect a systematic and rationalised vision of the law. Firstly, modern codes are characterised by the formulation of general and abstract rules. Unlike the simple compilation of existing laws and customs, modern codes aim to establish universal principles that can be applied to a wide variety of situations. This general and abstract approach allows greater flexibility and adaptability of the law, while ensuring uniformity and predictability in its application. Secondly, these rules of law are organised according to a systematic plan, often divided into subjects. This structuring by subject or legal area makes it easier to find and understand the legal provisions. Each article or section of the code deals with a specific aspect of the law, making it easier to navigate and interpret.
当代法典所体现的现代编纂理念与早期的法律编纂和组织方法有很大不同。这种现代法律编纂方法基于几项基本原则,反映了一种系统化和合理化的法律观。首先,现代法典的特点是制定一般性的抽象规则。与现有法律和习惯的简单汇编不同,现代法典旨在制定可适用于各种情况的普遍原则。这种概括和抽象的方法使法律具有更大的灵活性和适应性,同时确保法律适用的统一性和可预见性。其次,这些法律规则按照系统的计划进行组织,通常分为不同的主题。这种按主题或法律领域编排的方式更便于查找和理解法律条文。法典的每一条或每一节都涉及法律的一个具体方面,使其更易于浏览和解释。


In addition, a code, as a whole, constitutes a coherent system. The various rules and articles are designed to fit together harmoniously, forming a coherent and logical whole. This systematic coherence is essential to ensure that the code is not only understandable, but also logically consistent. Finally, codes are the result of official promulgation by the sovereign authority and apply to all inhabitants under its jurisdiction. This official promulgation gives the code legal authority and legitimacy, ensuring that it is recognised and respected as the principal source of law. The universal application of the code to all inhabitants also ensures that the law is applied equally and fairly to the whole of society. Modern legal codes represent a structured and systematised approach to the law, reflecting a desire to organise legal rules in a way that is logical, accessible and universally applicable. This codification methodology has significantly influenced the way the law is conceived and applied in contemporary societies, contributing to the development of more orderly and efficient legal systems.
此外,法典作为一个整体,构成了一个连贯的体系。各种规则和条款被设计为和谐地组合在一起,形成一个连贯和合乎逻辑的整体。这种系统的连贯性对于确保法典不仅易于理解,而且在逻辑上前后一致至关重要。最后,法典是主权当局正式颁布的结果,适用于其管辖范围内的所有居民。这种正式颁布赋予法典以法律权威和合法性,确保其作为主要法律渊源得到认可和尊重。法典对所有居民的普遍适用也确保了法律平等、公正地适用于整个社会。现代法典代表了一种结构化和系统化的法律方法,反映了人们希望以一种合乎逻辑、易于理解和普遍适用的方式组织法律规则。这种编纂方法极大地影响了当代社会对法律的理解和应用,促进了更有序、更高效的法律体系的发展。


The evolution of legal codes since the late eighteenth century represents a remarkable integration and synthesis of the four great legal traditions that have shaped law in Europe: Roman law, Germanic law, canon law and the teachings of the modern school of natural law. Roman law, with its long history and detailed elaboration, provided a solid structural and conceptual basis for modern codes, particularly in the areas of civil law. Its principles of contract, property and civil liability have been integrated and adapted in the new codifications. Germanic law, which influenced the legal systems of northern and western Europe, made its contribution in terms of customary law and local practices. These elements enriched the codes by incorporating aspects of law that were better adapted to the specific realities and traditions of different regions. Canon law, for its part, has had a significant influence in the areas of family and inheritance law. Although its role has diminished with the secularisation of legal systems, some of its principles and approaches have been retained and reflected in the new codifications. Finally, the teachings of the modern school of natural law played a crucial role in bringing in concepts of universal rights, equality before the law and popular sovereignty. These ideas had a profound influence on the development of constitutional and public law, as well as the notions of human rights and citizenship. These codes, which emerged at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, therefore represent a remarkable effort to consolidate and unify the law. They succeeded in harmonising and systematising diverse legal traditions, making them accessible and applicable to a modern society. These codifications marked a turning point in the history of law, establishing legal foundations that continue to guide contemporary legal systems.
自十八世纪末以来,法典的演变代表了塑造欧洲法律的四大法律传统的显著融合与综合: 罗马法、日耳曼法、教会法和现代自然法学派的学说。罗马法历史悠久,阐述详尽,为现代法典提供了坚实的结构和概念基础,尤其是在民法领域。其关于合同、财产和民事责任的原则在新的法典中得到了整合和调整。日耳曼法影响了北欧和西欧的法律体系,并在习惯法和地方惯例方面做出了贡献。这些因素通过纳入更适合不同地区具体现实和传统的法律内容而丰富了法典。教会法在家庭法和继承法领域具有重要影响。虽然随着法律制度的世俗化,它的作用有所减弱,但其中的一些原则和方法在新的法典中得到了保留和体现。最后,现代自然法学派的学说在引入普遍权利、法律面前人人平等和人民主权等概念方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些思想对宪法和公法的发展以及人权和公民权的概念产生了深远的影响。因此,这些出现于十八世纪末和十九世纪初的法典代表了为巩固和统一法律所做的卓越努力。它们成功地协调了不同的法律传统并使之系统化,使其易于理解并适用于现代社会。这些法典编纂标志着法律史上的一个转折点,奠定了继续指导当代法律体系的法律基础。


Swiss civil legislation, with the adoption of the Civil Code in 1912 and the Code of Obligations, represents a remarkable fusion of various historical legal traditions, reflecting the diversity and richness of Europe's legal heritage. These codes are not simply compilations of existing laws, but rather the result of a deliberate and considered synthesis of the most significant legal influences in Europe. The Germanic tradition, known for its emphasis on local and regional customs, has played an important role in the development of Swiss law, particularly in the areas of family law, inheritance law and rights in rem. For example, in family and inheritance law, there are elements that reflect the local values and practices inherited from this tradition. Similarly, canon law, with its history of regulating family and matrimonial matters within the Catholic Church, has influenced these same areas in the Swiss Civil Code. Although Switzerland has adopted a modern, secular approach, the legacy of canon law on family relations is still perceptible. Roman law, with its sophisticated concepts of property rights and obligations, has also left its mark on Swiss law. The Code of Obligations, for example, illustrates the influence of the methodology and principles of Roman law, particularly in the way it deals with contracts and civil liability. The modern school of natural law, promoting principles such as fundamental rights and equality, has also shaped Swiss civil legislation. These universal principles have become essential components of Swiss law, influencing the country's legislation, constitution and overall legal framework. Finally, Christian Wolff's methodological approach, which focused on legal systematisation and logic, had an impact on the way in which Swiss law was codified. This influence can be seen in the organised and systematic structure of the Swiss codes, which reflect a coherent and orderly vision of the law. Swiss civil legislation, with its civil codes and codes of obligations, represents a successful integration of Germanic, canonical and Roman legal traditions, as well as the ideas of modern natural law and the systematic thinking of Christian Wolff. This blend of traditions and influences has led to the creation of a legal system that is not only rooted in history, but also adapted to the requirements and values of contemporary Swiss society.
瑞士的民事立法于 1912 年通过了《民法典》和《义务法典》,是各种历史法律传统的杰出融合,反映了欧洲法律遗产的多样性和丰富性。这些法典并不是对现有法律的简单汇编,而是经过深思熟虑,综合了欧洲最重要的法律影响的结果。日耳曼传统以强调地方和区域习俗而著称,在瑞士法律的发展中发挥了重要作用,尤其是在家庭法、继承法和物权方面。例如,在家庭法和继承法中,有一些内容反映了从这一传统中继承下来的当地价值观和习俗。同样,教会法因其在天主教会内管理家庭和婚姻事务的历史,也对《瑞士民法典》中的这些领域产生了影响。虽然瑞士采用了现代世俗的方法,但教会法在家庭关系方面的遗产仍然清晰可见。罗马法中关于财产权和义务的复杂概念也在瑞士法律中留下了印记。例如,《义务法典》就体现了罗马法方法和原则的影响,尤其是在处理合同和民事责任方面。倡导基本权利和平等等原则的现代自然法学派也影响了瑞士的民事立法。这些普遍原则已成为瑞士法律的重要组成部分,影响着瑞士的立法、宪法和整体法律框架。最后,克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫注重法律系统化和逻辑性的方法论对瑞士法律的编纂方式产生了影响。这种影响体现在瑞士法典有组织、有系统的结构中,反映了一种连贯有序的法律观。瑞士的民事立法,包括民法典和义务法典,成功地融合了日耳曼、教会和罗马的法律传统,以及现代自然法思想和克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫(Christian Wolff)的系统思想。这种传统和影响的融合使瑞士的法律体系不仅植根于历史,而且适应当代瑞士社会的要求和价值观。


= Common law and the rules of equity =
= 普通法和衡平法规则 =


== Common law ==
== 普通法 ==
Common Law is a legal system that has its roots in England and is distinct from the civil law-based legal systems that prevail in continental Europe. Common law is characteristic of Anglo-Saxon countries, including the United Kingdom (with the exception of Scotland, which has a mixed system), the United States (with the exception of Louisiana), Canada (with the exception of Quebec), Australia, New Zealand and other former British colonies. This system is based on case law, i.e. the decisions of courts and tribunals, rather than on written codes or formal legislative statutes. In Common Law, judicial precedents (decisions in previous cases) play a crucial role in determining the outcome of future cases. Judges play an active role in shaping the law by interpreting legislation and establishing precedents to guide future decisions.
普通法是一种起源于英国的法律制度,有别于欧洲大陆盛行的以民法为基础的法律制度。普通法是盎格鲁-撒克逊国家的特色,包括英国(苏格兰除外,苏格兰实行混合制)、美国(路易斯安那州除外)、加拿大(魁北克除外)、澳大利亚、新西兰和其他前英国殖民地。这种体系以判例法(即法院和法庭的裁决)为基础,而不是以成文法典或正式的立法法规为基础。在英美法系中,司法先例(以前案件的判决)对决定未来案件的结果起着至关重要的作用。法官通过解释立法和确立先例来指导未来的判决,在法律的形成过程中发挥着积极作用。


By contrast, continental Europe mainly follows the civil law system, which developed from Roman law. This system is characterised by comprehensive legal codes covering broad areas of law, such as civil, commercial and criminal law. Civil law emphasises written statutes and codes, and judges' main role is to apply these statutes consistently, rather than to create law through their decisions. Thus, although Common Law and Civil Law share certain legal principles and concepts, they differ fundamentally in their approach and methodology. Common law is deeply rooted in the legal traditions and practices of Anglo-Saxon countries and has not directly influenced the legal systems of continental Europe, which follow the civil law tradition.
相比之下,欧洲大陆主要遵循由罗马法发展而来的大陆法系。这种法律体系的特点是拥有涵盖民法、商法和刑法等广泛法律领域的综合性法典。民法强调成文的法规和法典,法官的主要职责是始终如一地适用这些法规,而不是通过判决创造法律。因此,尽管普通法和民法共享某些法律原则和概念,但它们在方法和手段上却有着本质的区别。普通法深深植根于盎格鲁-撒克逊国家的法律传统和实践,并没有直接影响到遵循大陆法系传统的欧洲大陆的法律体系。


The legal history of England in the first millennium is marked by a series of significant transformations due to its membership of the Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions that followed. After the Romans withdrew in the early fifth century, England was invaded by Germanic peoples, mainly the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. These invasions had a profound impact on the social, cultural and legal structure of what was to become England. The kingdoms that developed in the British Isles after these invasions were characterised by Germanic practices and customs. These Germanic peoples, when they settled in England, brought with them their own legal systems, which were mainly based on oral customs. Over time, and particularly as the kingdoms consolidated, there were efforts to write down these customs. The writing down of Germanic customs in their own languages was an important step in the development of law in England. These written documents were the foundations of what was to become English common law. These early laws, although rudimentary by modern standards, were essential in establishing a legal and social order. These written customs reflected the values and practices of Germanic societies of the time, with an emphasis on concepts such as compensation (payment for wrongs or damages) and the importance of community and family relationships in resolving disputes. England in the first millennium, influenced by its Roman past and the Germanic traditions of the invading peoples, saw the emergence of legal systems that would shape the later development of English law. The writing down of Germanic customs was a crucial milestone in this process, laying the foundations for what was to become the Common Law legal system.[[Fichier:Bayeuxtapestryscene52.jpg|thumb|L'armée anglaise encaisse la charge de la cavalerie normande lors de la bataille de Hastings.]]
英格兰在第一个千年的法律史上,由于其罗马帝国的成员身份以及随后的日耳曼人入侵,发生了一系列重大变革。罗马人在五世纪初撤出后,英格兰遭到日耳曼人的入侵,主要是撒克逊人、盎格鲁人和朱特人。这些入侵对后来英格兰的社会、文化和法律结构产生了深远的影响。这些入侵之后在不列颠群岛发展起来的王国具有日耳曼习俗和风俗的特点。这些日耳曼人在英格兰定居后,带来了他们自己的法律体系,这些体系主要以口头习俗为基础。随着时间的推移,特别是随着王国的巩固,人们开始努力将这些习俗写成文字。用日耳曼人自己的语言记载日耳曼习俗是英格兰法律发展的重要一步。这些书面文件是后来英国普通法的基础。这些早期的法律虽然按照现代标准来看很简陋,但对于建立法律和社会秩序至关重要。这些成文习俗反映了当时日耳曼社会的价值观和习俗,强调赔偿(对错误或损害的补偿)等概念以及社区和家庭关系在解决纠纷中的重要性。一千年前的英格兰受到罗马历史和入侵民族的日耳曼传统的影响,出现了影响后来英国法律发展的法律体系。日耳曼习俗的记载是这一过程中的重要里程碑,为后来的普通法法律体系奠定了基础。[[Fichier:Bayeuxtapestryscene52.jpg|thumb|英国军队在黑斯廷斯战役中抵挡住了诺曼骑兵的冲锋。]]


The invasion of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, and his victory at the Battle of Hastings marked a turning point in English history, including in the legal sphere. After his conquest, William took several important steps to consolidate his power, while striving to maintain a certain continuity in existing social and legal structures. One of these measures was the proclamation of the maintenance of the Germanic law that had been in force prior to his conquest. This law, which had evolved from the customs of Germanic peoples such as the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, formed the basis of the legal system in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. By choosing to maintain this legal system, William ensured a certain continuity and stability, which was essential for the efficient administration of the kingdom and for maintaining social peace. William also maintained the existing courts of justice. These courts, which were responsible for administering justice according to local customs, continued to function under Norman rule. This decision made it possible to preserve the existing legal order while gradually integrating Norman influences. However, although William maintained the existing legal framework, he also made significant changes that shaped the future development of the English legal system. For example, the introduction of feudal tenure altered the structure of land ownership and had far-reaching legal implications. In addition, Norman influence gradually manifested itself in the centralisation of royal power and in the development of English law. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror was a key moment in English legal history. Although he retained the existing Germanic legal system and courts, the period that followed saw a gradual integration of Norman influences and a process of centralisation and evolution that would eventually lead to the development of the Common Law system.
1066 年,诺曼底公爵征服者威廉入侵英格兰,并在黑斯廷斯战役中取得胜利,这标志着英国历史的转折点,包括在法律领域。征服之后,威廉采取了几项重要措施来巩固自己的权力,同时努力保持现有社会和法律结构的某种连续性。其中一项措施就是宣布维持在他征服英国之前一直有效的日耳曼法律。这种法律是由撒克逊人、盎格鲁人和朱特人等日耳曼民族的习俗演变而来,构成了盎格鲁-撒克逊王国法律体系的基础。威廉选择保留这一法律体系,从而确保了一定的连续性和稳定性,这对于高效管理王国和维护社会和平至关重要。威廉还保留了现有的法院。这些法院负责按照当地习俗执行司法,在诺曼统治下继续运作。这一决定使得在逐渐融合诺曼影响的同时保留现有法律秩序成为可能。然而,尽管威廉保留了现有的法律框架,但他也做出了重大改变,影响了英国法律体系未来的发展。例如,封建保有权的引入改变了土地所有权的结构,并产生了深远的法律影响。此外,诺曼人的影响逐渐体现在王权的集中和英国法律的发展上。征服者威廉于 1066 年征服英格兰是英国法律史上的一个关键时刻。虽然他保留了现有的日耳曼法律体系和法院,但在随后的时期里,诺曼人的影响逐渐融入了英国法律体系,并经历了一个中央集权和演变的过程,最终导致了普通法体系的发展。


William the Conqueror's conquest of England in 1066 led to significant changes in the judicial organisation of the kingdom, while preserving certain aspects of the existing legal system. William adopted a two-pronged approach, combining the maintenance of Germanic legal traditions with the introduction of new judicial structures. On the one hand, William respected existing Germanic law and retained the local courts of justice, which contributed to the continuity and stability of the legal system after the conquest. These local courts continued to apply customary law, which was rooted in the traditions and practices of the Germanic peoples who had settled in England before the Norman Conquest. On the other hand, William created new courts in different parts of England and placed Norman lords at their head. These new jurisdictions, often called seigniorial courts, were intended to strengthen Norman control over the country and to integrate the conquered territories into the royal domain. These seigniorial courts gradually began to replace the old judicial structures, although they continued to apply customary law.
征服者威廉(William the Conqueror)于 1066 年征服英格兰,在保留现有法律体系某些方面的同时,对王国的司法组织进行了重大改革。威廉采取了双管齐下的方法,既保留了日耳曼法律传统,又引入了新的司法结构。一方面,威廉尊重现有的日耳曼法律,保留了地方法院,这有助于征服后法律体系的连续性和稳定性。这些地方法院继续适用习惯法,而习惯法植根于诺曼征服前定居英格兰的日耳曼人的传统和习俗。另一方面,威廉在英格兰不同地区设立了新的法院,并让诺曼领主担任法院院长。这些新的司法机构通常被称为郡法院,旨在加强诺曼人对国家的控制,并将被征服的领土纳入王室领地。这些领地法院虽然继续适用习惯法,但逐渐开始取代旧的司法机构。


From the twelfth century onwards, the influence of royal power over the judicial system increased. The kings of England began to regularly send representatives, often called itinerant judges, to attend trials in different parts of the kingdom. The role of these royal representatives was to ensure that justice was done in accordance with the laws and customs of the kingdom. Their presence also served to assert royal authority and centralise control over the administration of justice. This development had important implications for the evolution of the English legal system. The presence of itinerant judges contributed to the standardisation of legal practice across the kingdom and paved the way for the emergence of the Common Law system. This system, based on case law and judicial decisions, became a distinctive feature of English law, in contrast to the codified civil law that prevailed in continental Europe.
从 12 世纪开始,王权对司法系统的影响日益增强。英格兰国王开始定期派遣代表(通常称为巡回法官)出席王国各地的审判。这些王室代表的作用是确保按照王国的法律和习俗伸张正义。他们的存在还有助于维护王室权威和集中控制司法行政。这一发展对英国法律制度的演变产生了重要影响。巡回法官的存在促进了整个王国法律实践的标准化,并为普通法体系的出现铺平了道路。这种以判例法和司法判决为基础的体系成为英国法律的一大特色,与欧洲大陆盛行的成文民法形成鲜明对比。


The introduction of itinerant judges in England after the Norman Conquest represented a major step in the development of the English legal system and was welcomed by many. These judges were sent by the king to travel around the kingdom and sit in the various local courts. Their presence was intended to ensure that justice was dispensed fairly and in accordance with the laws and customs of the realm. One of the main perceived advantages of itinerant judges was their impartiality. Unlike the seigneurial courts, where decisions could be influenced by local interests or pressure from the local nobility, itinerant judges were perceived as being above local quarrels and influences. By being directly linked to the crown, they were seen as more neutral and independent, enabling them to deliver fairer and more balanced judgements.
诺曼征服后,英国引入巡回法官,这是英国法律制度发展的重要一步,受到许多人的欢迎。这些法官由国王派遣,在王国各地巡回,在各个地方法院开庭审理案件。他们的存在旨在确保司法公正,并符合王国的法律和习俗。巡回法官的主要优势之一是他们的公正性。与地方法院不同,巡回法官的判决可能会受到地方利益或地方贵族压力的影响,而巡回法官则被认为凌驾于地方争吵和影响之上。由于与王室直接相关,他们被视为更加中立和独立,能够做出更加公正和平衡的判决。


This perception of impartiality and fairness helped to strengthen confidence in the judicial system and increased respect for the royal authority in the administration of justice. Circuit judges played a key role in creating a sense of legal unity and standardising legal practice across England. Their work also contributed to the formation of the Common Law, as their decisions and the precedents they established formed the basis of the case law on which that system rests. Circuit judges were a major judicial innovation in medieval England. Not only did they help to consolidate royal authority in the field of justice, but they also laid the foundations for the development of a more uniform and equitable legal system, characteristics that became cornerstones of the Common Law system.
这种公正和公平的观念有助于增强人们对司法系统的信心,并提高人们对王室司法权威的尊重。巡回法官在营造法律统一感和规范英格兰法律实践方面发挥了关键作用。他们的工作还促进了普通法的形成,因为他们的判决和他们确立的先例构成了判例法的基础,而判例法正是普通法体系的基础。巡回法官是中世纪英格兰的一项重大司法创新。他们不仅有助于巩固王室在司法领域的权威,还为发展更加统一和公平的法律制度奠定了基础,这些特点成为普通法体系的基石。


The transformation of justice in England after the Norman Conquest gradually led to the establishment of a more centralised and unified judicial system, in particular with the creation of a permanent Court of Justice at Westminster. This development marked a key stage in the formation of the Common Law legal system. Initially linked to the King's court, the judiciary gradually began to detach itself from this direct influence. Itinerant judges, initially delegates of the King who travelled the length and breadth of the realm to dispense justice, eventually took up permanent residence at Westminster. This centralisation enabled a more systematic discussion and analysis of local customs and of the decisions taken in the various trials throughout the kingdom. By meeting at Westminster, these judges were able to compare and evaluate the different practices and penalties applied in the various regions of England. This process made it possible to identify the best solutions and to reject those that were deemed unfounded or inappropriate. As a result, the judges played a crucial role in unifying and standardising English common law.
诺曼征服后,英格兰司法的变革逐渐促成了更加集中统一的司法体系的建立,特别是在威斯敏斯特建立了常设法院。这一发展标志着普通法法律体系形成的关键阶段。司法机构最初与国王的法院联系在一起,后来逐渐开始脱离这一直接影响。巡回法官最初是国王的代表,他们奔走于王国的各个角落伸张正义,最终永久居住在威斯敏斯特。这种集中化的做法使人们能够更系统地讨论和分析各地的风俗习惯以及王国各地各种审判中做出的裁决。通过在威斯敏斯特举行会议,这些法官能够比较和评估英格兰各地区的不同做法和刑罚。通过这一过程,他们可以找出最佳解决方案,并否决那些被认为毫无根据或不恰当的方案。因此,法官们在统一和规范英国普通法方面发挥了至关重要的作用。


The work of these judges at Westminster also contributed to the formation of a coherent body of case law. The precedents established by their decisions became benchmarks for future cases, creating the foundations of the Common Law system. This system is based on the principle that previous judicial decisions should guide judgements in similar cases, thus ensuring a certain consistency and predictability in the application of the law. This move towards a centralised judicial system and the formation of a coherent body of case law at Westminster marked a turning point in English legal history. It led to a legal system in which the law is based primarily on judges' decisions and judicial precedents, in contrast to the civil law systems based on written codes that prevailed in continental Europe.
这些法官在威斯敏斯特的工作也有助于形成一套连贯的判例法。他们的判决所确立的先例成为未来案件的基准,为普通法体系奠定了基础。这一体系所依据的原则是,以前的司法判决应指导类似案件的判决,从而确保法律适用的某种一致性和可预见性。威斯敏斯特向中央集权司法体系的转变以及一整套判例法的形成标志着英国法律史上的一个转折点。与欧洲大陆盛行的以成文法典为基础的大陆法系不同,英国的法律体系主要以法官判决和司法判例为基础。


The development of jurisprudence in England, particularly at Westminster, was marked by the gradual adoption of the principle of "stare decisis", a Latin concept meaning "to stand by what has been judged". This principle became a fundamental pillar of the Common Law system, emphasising the importance of respecting previous judicial decisions. The principle of "stare decisis" implies that judges must respect the precedents established by past judicial decisions when dealing with similar cases. In other words, once a question of law has been decided in a particular case, that decision serves as a point of reference for future cases involving similar facts or legal issues. This respect for previous decisions ensures a certain consistency and predictability in the application of the law, as the parties involved in a dispute and society as a whole can expect similar cases to be resolved in a similar way. The adoption of this attitude to matters previously decided has had several important effects on the English legal system. First, it reinforced the authority of judicial decisions, establishing court judgments as major sources of law. Secondly, it has encouraged the formation of a coherent body of case law, allowing judges and lawyers to rely on well-established precedents to guide their arguments and decisions. Finally, it has contributed to the stability and uniformity of English law. Rather than relying solely on written statutes or codes, the Common Law system in England has evolved primarily through judicial decisions and interpretations. This system, centred on precedent and case law, contrasts with the civil law systems of continental Europe, where the law is based primarily on written codes.
英国(尤其是威斯敏斯特)法学的发展以逐渐采用 "stare decisis "原则为标志,"stare decisis "是一个拉丁文概念,意为 "坚持已作出的判决"。这一原则成为普通法体系的基本支柱,强调了尊重先前司法判决的重要性。遵循判决 "原则意味着法官在处理类似案件时必须尊重以往司法判决所确立的先例。换言之,法律问题一旦在某一特定案件中得到裁决,该裁决即成为今后涉及类似事实或法律问题的案件的参照点。这种对先前判决的尊重确保了法律适用的某种一致性和可预见性,因为争议所涉各方和整个社会都可以期待类似案件以类似方式得到解决。对以前判决的事项采取这种态度对英国法律制度产生了几个重要影响。首先,它加强了司法判决的权威性,将法院判决确立为主要的法律渊源。其次,它鼓励形成一整套连贯的判例法,使法官和律师能够依靠确立已久的先例来指导他们的论证和裁决。最后,它促进了英国法律的稳定性和统一性。英国的普通法体系并非完全依赖成文法规或法典,而是主要通过司法判决和解释发展而来。这一体系以先例和判例法为核心,与欧洲大陆的大陆法系形成鲜明对比,后者的法律主要以成文法典为基础。


The thirteenth century was a crucial period in the establishment of the Common Law in England. It was during this century that the legal system began to take its definitive shape, thanks in particular to the gradual and careful action of the royal judges. This period saw the development of a coherent body of legal principles and practices that became the basis of English law. A key aspect of the development of the Common Law was the way in which the Royal Judges extended the jurisdiction of the Royal Courts. This was done carefully and gradually, partly to accommodate existing territorial courts. The royal authorities were aware of the potential tensions with local and seigniorial legal systems, and too rapid an expansion of the royal courts could have provoked resistance or even revolt. The royal courts developed in parallel with the seigneurial and local courts, offering an alternative for litigants. Over time, these royal courts gained in prestige and authority, mainly due to their perceived impartiality and their more uniform and consistent application of the law. The gradual extension of the jurisdiction of the Royal Courts has also helped to develop and consolidate the principles of the Common Law. Royal judges, in their decisions, developed a body of legal rules and principles based on precedent. These precedents became the cornerstones of Common Law, forming a body of case law that guides judicial decisions to this day.
13 世纪是英国建立普通法的关键时期。正是在这一世纪,法律体系开始定型,这尤其要归功于王室法官循序渐进的谨慎行动。这一时期形成了一整套连贯的法律原则和惯例,成为英国法律的基础。普通法发展的一个重要方面是皇家法官扩大皇家法院管辖权的方式。这种做法是谨慎而渐进的,部分是为了适应现有的属地法院。王室当局意识到了与地方和领地法律体系之间潜在的紧张关系,过快地扩大王室法院可能会引起抵制甚至反抗。王室法院与领地法院和地方法院并行发展,为诉讼当事人提供了另一种选择。随着时间的推移,这些皇家法院的威望和权威不断提高,主要是因为它们被认为是公正的,而且在适用法律方面更加统一和一致。皇家法院管辖权的逐步扩大也有助于发展和巩固普通法的原则。皇家法官在其判决中根据先例制定了一整套法律规则和原则。这些先例成为普通法的基石,形成了一套判例法,至今仍指导着司法判决。


As part of the consolidation of his power and authority over the whole kingdom, the royal judicial system in England was organised around three key areas, each managed by a specific court. This structure reflected the King's need to exercise effective and direct control over vital aspects of the realm. Firstly, the Court of Exchequer played a central role in the management of the royal finances. This court was responsible for collecting and administering the king's revenues, such as taxes. At a time when financial resources were essential for maintaining order and defending the kingdom, the role of the Court of Exchequer was crucial in ensuring the financial stability of the state. It thus served as a pillar for the economic management of the kingdom and the projection of royal authority. Secondly, the Court of Common Pleas dealt with issues of land ownership. In a feudal society where land was the main source of wealth and status, the control and regulation of land rights was essential. This court dealt with land disputes, inheritance issues and property rights. It played a decisive role in the social and economic structuring of the kingdom, regulating relations between lords, vassals and peasants. Thirdly, the Court of King's Bench specialised in major criminal cases, particularly those affecting the security of the state. This court dealt with major crimes and cases that jeopardised the stability and security of the kingdom. Its role was to maintain public order and protect royal authority, ensuring that crimes against the state were duly tried and punished. By managing finance, land ownership and state security respectively, these three specialised courts enabled the King of England to assert his power over essential areas of government and society. They contributed to the centralisation of royal power and played a key role in the evolution of English government and the legal system, demonstrating the importance of an organised and effective justice system for the governance of a kingdom.
为了巩固国王在整个王国的权力和权威,英格兰的皇家司法系统围绕三个关键领域展开,每个领域由一个特定的法院管理。这种结构反映了国王需要对王国的重要方面进行有效而直接的控制。首先,财政法院在管理王室财政方面发挥着核心作用。该法院负责征收和管理国王的税收等收入。在财政资源对维持秩序和保卫王国至关重要的时期,财政法院在确保国家财政稳定方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,它是王国经济管理和王权投射的支柱。其次,普通法院处理土地所有权问题。在封建社会,土地是财富和地位的主要来源,因此对土地权的控制和管理至关重要。该法院负责处理土地纠纷、继承问题和产权问题。它在王国的社会和经济结构中发挥着决定性作用,调节着领主、诸侯和农民之间的关系。第三,国王法庭专门审理重大刑事案件,尤其是影响国家安全的案件。该法院负责处理重大犯罪和危及王国稳定与安全的案件。它的职责是维护公共秩序和保护王权,确保危害国家的罪行得到应有的审判和惩罚。通过分别管理财政、土地所有权和国家安全,这三个专门法院使英国国王能够在政府和社会的重要领域行使权力。它们促进了王权的集中,在英国政府和法律制度的演变过程中发挥了关键作用,证明了有组织、有效的司法系统对王国治理的重要性。


During his reign, the King of England sought to extend his jurisdiction beyond the three main areas managed by the specialised royal courts, in order to assert his power and increase his revenues. This expansion of royal jurisdiction often met with the support of the population, who sometimes perceived the royal courts as fairer and less subject to local influence than the lordly or local courts. By extending his jurisdiction, the king was able to intervene in a wider variety of legal matters, which not only strengthened his authority over the whole kingdom, but also helped to increase the crown's income. Judicial fees, fines and other forms of revenue from trials increased the royal finances, which was essential for the maintenance and expansion of the state. To effectively implement the sentences of the royal courts, the royal judiciary had royal officers. These officers were responsible for enforcing judicial decisions, including, if necessary, the use of force. Their presence and activity testified to the scope and effectiveness of royal justice, ensuring that court decisions were respected and enforced throughout the kingdom. This process of extending royal jurisdiction played a crucial role in the centralisation of power in England and in establishing the authority of the king as the supreme source of justice. At the same time, it contributed to the formation of a more unified and coherent legal system, with royal justice acting as a counterweight to local and seigniorial influences and providing a fairer and more uniform framework for the resolution of disputes.
英格兰国王在位期间,为了维护自己的权力和增加收入,试图将其管辖范围扩大到由专门的皇家法院管理的三大领域之外。这种扩大王室管辖范围的做法常常得到民众的支持,他们有时认为王室法院比领主法院或地方法院更公平,更不受地方影响。通过扩大管辖权,国王能够干预更多的法律事务,这不仅加强了他在整个王国的权威,也有助于增加王室的收入。司法费用、罚金和其他形式的审判收入增加了王室的财政收入,这对国家的维持和扩张至关重要。为了有效执行王室法院的判决,王室司法机构设有王室官员。这些官员负责执行司法判决,包括在必要时使用武力。他们的存在和活动证明了王室司法的范围和有效性,确保法院判决在整个王国得到尊重和执行。这种扩大王室管辖权的过程对英格兰的中央集权和确立国王作为最高司法来源的权威起到了至关重要的作用。与此同时,它还有助于形成一个更加统一和连贯的法律体系,王室司法起到了制衡地方和宗主国影响的作用,并为解决争端提供了一个更加公平和统一的框架。


The development and expansion of the areas of jurisdiction of the Westminster Royal Courts in England were greatly facilitated by the establishment of specific procedures for litigants to bring cases before these courts. These procedures played a crucial role in making royal justice accessible and in asserting the King's authority over the judicial system. These procedures, known as writs, were written orders issued in the name of the king. They allowed individuals to bring their cases to the royal courts for a variety of legal matters. Essentially, writs acted as a bridge between litigants and the royal courts, providing them with a formal means of seeking the intervention of royal justice.
英国威斯敏斯特皇家法院制定了诉讼当事人向这些法院提起诉讼的具体程序,这极大地促进了皇家法院管辖权范围的发展和扩大。这些程序在使人们能够诉诸皇家司法以及维护国王对司法系统的权威方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些程序被称为令状,是以国王的名义发布的书面命令。它们允许个人就各种法律事务向皇家法院提起诉讼。从本质上讲,令状是诉讼当事人和皇家法院之间的桥梁,为他们提供了寻求皇家司法干预的正式途径。


The use of writs extended the reach of royal justice beyond the original areas of finance, land ownership and criminal cases against the state. Over time, writs became increasingly sophisticated instruments, enabling the royal courts to deal with a wider range of disputes, including those arising in seigneurial or local jurisdictions. Greater access to the royal courts also reinforced the sense of more uniform and fair justice under the authority of the king. The subjects of the kingdom could appeal to courts perceived as more neutral and less influenced by local or seigniorial interests. This helped to increase confidence in royal justice and strengthen the legitimacy of royal authority in the administration of justice.
令状的使用将皇家司法的触角延伸到了金融、土地所有权和针对国家的刑事案件等原有领域之外。随着时间的推移,令状成为越来越复杂的工具,使皇家法院能够处理更广泛的纠纷,包括在世袭领地或地方管辖范围内出现的纠纷。更多的人可以诉诸王室法院,这也加强了在国王权威下更加统一和公正的司法意识。王国的臣民可以向被认为更加中立、受地方或领地利益影响较小的法院提起上诉。这有助于增强人们对王室司法的信心,加强王室司法权威的合法性。


The role of the writ in the English legal system, particularly in the context of the Royal Courts at Westminster, was central to the way in which disputes were approached and resolved. The writ was an official document, issued in the name of the King, which authorised a person to bring a case before a royal court. This mechanism was essential to guarantee access to royal justice and to assert the king's authority in settling disputes. In a dispute, it was crucial to find a writ applicable to the case in question if the claimant was to obtain satisfaction. If a suitable writ existed, it meant that the case could be heard by a royal court. Failure to obtain satisfaction in a dispute could be seen as a form of disobedience to a royal order, since writs represented the authority and will of the king. On the other hand, the defendant in a dispute also had the opportunity to appear before a royal court to explain why he felt he should not obey an injunction he had received. This procedure provided an opportunity for both parties to present their case before a neutral and respected judicial authority, far removed from local or seigniorial influences. The use of writs led to the development of a series of royal courts, often to the detriment of seigneurial courts. Indeed, the appeal of the royal courts lay in their perceived impartiality and their ability to offer justice based on uniform and consistent principles. This development gradually reduced the role and influence of the seigneurial and local courts, centralising judicial authority under the direct control of the King.
令状在英国法律体系中的作用,尤其是在威斯敏斯特皇家法院的背景下,对于处理和解决争端的方式至关重要。令状是以国王名义签发的官方文件,授权个人将案件提交皇家法院审理。这一机制对于保证诉诸王室司法和维护国王在解决争端中的权威至关重要。在纠纷中,如果原告想要获得赔偿,找到适用于相关案件的令状至关重要。如果有合适的令状,就意味着案件可以由王室法庭审理。由于令状代表着国王的权威和意志,因此在纠纷中无法获得清偿可被视为对王室命令的一种违抗。另一方面,纠纷中的被告也有机会到王室法庭解释为什么他认为不应该遵守他收到的禁令。这一程序为双方提供了一个机会,让他们在一个中立且受尊重的司法机构面前陈述案情,远离地方或领地的影响。令状的使用导致了一系列王室法院的发展,这往往不利于领地法院的发展。事实上,王室法院的吸引力在于它们被认为是公正的,能够根据统一和一致的原则伸张正义。这一发展逐渐削弱了领地法院和地方法院的作用和影响力,将司法权力集中在国王的直接控制之下。


The system of writs in England, which began as a personalised way of dealing with specific legal cases, evolved into the use of stereotyped formulae. The Chancellor, who was responsible for issuing writs, began to issue them routinely and for a fee, without a thorough examination of each case. This practice made access to royal justice easier and more direct, attracting a large number of disputes to the royal courts. This development had several important consequences. On the one hand, it improved the finances of the crown, as the issuing of writs became a significant source of revenue. On the other hand, this practice provoked opposition from the barons and feudal lords, whose own seigneurial courts of justice began to be abandoned in favour of the royal courts. The barons saw this development not only as a loss of their legal influence, but also as an erosion of their power and income.
英格兰的令状制度最初是处理具体法律案件的个性化方式,后来逐渐演变为使用定型公式。负责签发令状的大法官开始例行签发令状并收取费用,而不对每个案件进行彻底审查。这种做法使诉诸皇家司法变得更容易、更直接,吸引了大量纠纷诉诸皇家法院。这一发展带来了几个重要的后果。一方面,它改善了王室的财政状况,因为签发令状成为了一项重要的收入来源。另一方面,这种做法引起了男爵和封建领主的反对,他们开始放弃自己的宗主法庭,转而使用王室法庭。在男爵们看来,这种发展不仅使他们丧失了法律影响力,也削弱了他们的权力和收入。


Seigniorial justice, which had historically played a key role in the administration of justice at local level, began to oppose the practice of the chancellor. The lords objected to the fact that the chancellor was issuing writs for matters that traditionally fell outside the royal jurisdiction, such as disputes that did not fall within the categories of royal finance, land ownership, and criminal cases against the state. This conflict between the interests of seigneurial justice and those of royal justice was a significant aspect of the evolution of the English legal system. It reflected the tension between the centralisation of power under royal authority and the preservation of local powers and prerogatives. The expansion of the jurisdiction of the Royal Courts, facilitated by the systematic use of writs, was a key element in the formation of the Common Law system, characterised by a more centralised and uniform system of justice.
历来在地方司法中发挥关键作用的领地司法开始反对大法官的做法。领主们反对大法官就传统上不属于王室管辖范围的事务签发令状,例如不属于王室财政、土地所有权和针对国家的刑事案件范畴的纠纷。宗主权司法利益与王室司法利益之间的冲突是英国法律制度演变的一个重要方面。它反映了王权集权与维护地方权力和特权之间的矛盾。通过系统地使用令状,扩大了皇家法院的管辖权,这是普通法体系形成的一个关键因素,其特点是司法体系更加集中和统一。


The period of conflict between the interests of the royal courts and those of the seigniorial courts in England led to a compromise with the Statute of Westminster. Adopted in the 13th century, this statute aimed to balance the interests of the King and the feudal lords, while ensuring the smooth running of the legal system. Under the Statute of Westminster, the Chancellor was limited in his ability to create new writs. This meant that the Chancellor could no longer arbitrarily extend the jurisdiction of the Royal Courts by inventing new writs for every new legal situation. This restriction was intended to protect traditional jurisdictions, particularly those of feudal lords, by preventing excessive expansion of royal judicial power.
在英格兰,王室法院与领地法院之间的利益冲突导致了《威斯敏斯特法规》的妥协。该法规于 13 世纪通过,旨在平衡国王和封建领主的利益,同时确保法律体系的顺利运行。根据《威斯敏斯特法规》,大法官制定新令状的能力受到限制。这意味着大法官不能再通过为每一种新的法律情况发明新的令状来任意扩大皇家法院的管辖权。这一限制旨在通过防止皇家司法权的过度扩张来保护传统司法权,尤其是封建领主的司法权。


However, the Chancellor was authorised to issue writs in cases similar to those already existing. This provision allowed a degree of flexibility in the application of writs, authorising their use in legal situations which were not explicitly covered by the existing formulas, but which were deemed sufficiently similar. In addition, the principle of similarity was used to incorporate many cases into existing writs. This principle allowed judges to apply an existing writ to a case that was not exactly the same, but which was sufficiently similar. This approach allowed a degree of flexibility and adaptation of the writs system without breaching the framework established by the Statute of Westminster. The Statute of Westminster thus played a crucial role in striking a balance between the centralisation of justice under royal authority and the preservation of local and seigneurial judicial powers. It helped to stabilise the English legal system and establish the Common Law as a coherent legal system, while respecting the rights and jurisdictions of feudal lords.
不过,大法官有权就与现有案件类似的案件签发令状。这一规定允许在一定程度上灵活运用令状,授权在现有公式未明确涵盖但被认为足够相似的法律情况下使用令状。此外,相似性原则被用于将许多案件纳入现有令状。该原则允许法官将现有令状适用于不完全相同但足够相似的案件。这种方法允许令状制度有一定程度的灵活性和适应性,同时又不违反《威斯敏斯特成文法》建立的框架。因此,《威斯敏斯特成文法》在王权下的司法中央集权与保留地方和世袭司法权之间取得平衡方面发挥了至关重要的作用。它有助于稳定英国的法律体系,并将普通法确立为一个连贯的法律体系,同时尊重封建领主的权利和管辖权。


The development of the common law in England was based to a significant extent on the system of writs. This system, with its roots in the Norman period and its evolution during the Middle Ages, played a central role in the assertion and expansion of the jurisdiction of the royal courts. Under the Common Law, the procedure for initiating litigation involved finding a writ applicable to the specific situation. Writs, being written orders issued in the name of the King, gave access to the Royal Courts for a variety of disputes. This approach standardised and formalised judicial requests, thereby facilitating access to royal justice. Over the course of the Middle Ages, the royal courts gradually acquired a wider jurisdiction, eventually becoming the kingdom's principal judicial institutions. They dealt with a wide range of cases, from property and contractual issues to criminal matters. This centralisation of justice under royal authority helped to standardise the law and create a coherent body of case law. At the same time as the development of the royal courts, the ecclesiastical courts continued to exercise their jurisdiction, albeit on a more limited scale. These courts, under the authority of the Church, had jurisdiction primarily over matters relating to marriage, wills (insofar as they concerned spiritual matters), and Church personnel. Although their scope was restricted, the ecclesiastical courts continued to play an important role in the areas within their jurisdiction.
英格兰普通法的发展在很大程度上基于令状制度。该制度起源于诺曼时期,在中世纪不断演变,在维护和扩大皇家法院管辖权方面发挥了核心作用。在普通法中,提起诉讼的程序涉及找到适用于具体情况的令状。令状是以国王的名义签发的书面命令,使人们可以就各种纠纷诉诸王室法院。这种方法使司法请求标准化和正规化,从而方便了人们诉诸皇家司法。在中世纪,王室法院逐渐获得了更广泛的管辖权,最终成为王国的主要司法机构。它们处理的案件范围很广,从财产和合同问题到刑事案件。这种在王权下的司法集中化有助于法律的标准化和判例法的统一。在王室法院发展的同时,教会法院也在继续行使其管辖权,尽管规模较为有限。这些法院在教会的领导下,主要管辖与婚姻、遗嘱(只要涉及属灵事务)和教会人员有关的事务。虽然范围有限,但教会法院在其管辖范围内继续发挥着重要作用。


The development of common law in England was strongly influenced by the practice of the judges of the Royal Courts of Westminster, who played a key role in the creation and development of this legal system. This development was accompanied by the gradual decline of the seigneurial courts, largely due to the extension of the jurisdiction of the Royal Courts through the practice of "like cases" or similarity. Unlike judges on the European continent, who were often university-educated and had an academic background in law, judges in England were generally field-trained practitioners. They did not come from a formal legal academic background, but rather were trained through practice as litigators. This practical approach to legal training had a significant impact on the nature and evolution of the common law. The judges of the Westminster Royal Courts, as practitioners, placed great importance on judicial precedent. They relied on decisions in previous cases to guide their judgments in current cases. This practice of precedent was essential to the development of the Common Law, as it created a coherent body of case law. Past decisions formed the basis on which judges resolved new disputes, ensuring predictability and consistency in the application of the law. This method of developing the law, based on precedent and the practical experience of judges, contrasted with the civil law system on the Continent, where the law was based primarily on written codes and formal legal theory. In England, Common Law developed organically through case law, reflecting a more pragmatic and adaptive approach to justice.
英国普通法的发展深受威斯敏斯特皇家法院法官实践的影响,他们在这一法律体系的创立和发展中发挥了关键作用。伴随着这一发展,世袭制法院逐渐衰落,这主要是由于皇家法院通过 "同类案件 "或相似性实践扩大了管辖权。欧洲大陆的法官通常受过大学教育,具有法律方面的学术背景,而英格兰的法官则不同,他们一般都是经过实地培训的从业人员。他们没有正规的法律学术背景,而是通过诉讼实践接受培训。这种实用的法律培训方式对普通法的性质和演变产生了重大影响。威斯敏斯特皇家法院的法官作为实践者,非常重视司法先例。他们依靠以前案件的判决来指导当前案件的判决。这种先例惯例对普通法的发展至关重要,因为它创造了一套连贯的判例法。过去的判决构成了法官解决新争议的基础,确保了法律适用的可预测性和一致性。这种以先例和法官的实践经验为基础的法律发展方法与大陆的大陆法系形成了鲜明的对比,后者的法律主要以成文法典和正式的法律理论为基础。在英国,普通法通过判例法有机地发展起来,反映了一种更加务实和适应性更强的司法方式。


As a legal system, Common Law relies heavily on the principle of precedent and the use of judicial precedents. This distinctive feature makes it a system in which past court decisions play a central role in the resolution of current disputes. Under common law, a lawyer's ability to remind the court of a similar previous decision is a powerful tool in advocacy. If a lawyer can demonstrate that a previous case decided by the court bears significant similarities to the current dispute, he or she is in a favourable position to influence the judgment. This practice is based on the principle that courts should follow decisions made in similar cases in the past, thereby ensuring consistency and predictability in the application of the law.
作为一种法律体系,普通法在很大程度上依赖于先例原则和司法判例的使用。这一显著特点使其成为一种过去的法院判决在解决当前争端中发挥核心作用的体系。在英美法系中,律师提醒法庭注意以前类似判决的能力是辩护的有力工具。如果律师能证明法院以前判决的案件与当前争议有重大相似之处,那么他或她就能处于有利地位,影响判决。这种做法所依据的原则是,法院应遵循过去类似案件的判决,从而确保法律适用的一致性和可预见性。


The role of the judge in the Common Law system is therefore to decide cases on the basis of the rules and principles established by judicial precedent. Unlike civil law systems, where judges primarily refer to written legal codes, in Common Law they rely heavily on previous interpretations and applications of the law. This method of judging ensures that the law is not only applied consistently, but also evolves through successive judicial decisions. As a result, Common Law is essentially judge-made law, constructed and developed on the basis of court decisions. This distinguishes it from other legal systems and contributes to its unique dynamic of evolution and adaptation over time.
因此,普通法系中法官的职责是根据司法先例所确立的规则和原则来判决案件。与大陆法系法官主要参考成文法典不同,在英美法系,法官在很大程度上依赖于以往对法律的解释和应用。这种判决方法不仅确保法律的适用前后一致,而且还能通过连续的司法判决不断发展。因此,普通法本质上是法官制定的法律,是在法院判决的基础上构建和发展起来的。这使其有别于其他法律体系,并使其具有随时间演变和调整的独特活力。


== Equity ==  
== 公平 ==  
During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Common Law, although having established a solid legal framework in England, began to show its limitations, particularly as a result of the rapid evolution of society and the economy. New types of disputes and complex situations emerged, which the existing Common Law framework struggled to resolve adequately. This situation has led to a search for alternative solutions outside the traditional Common Law system. Faced with these challenges, litigants turned to the King as a "fountain of justice". They appealed to the royal court, stressing the exceptional nature of their case, hoping to obtain more flexible justice adapted to their specific needs. This approach was based on the concept that the king, as sovereign, had the ultimate power to dispense justice and could intervene in cases where ordinary law was insufficient or inappropriate.
14 世纪和 15 世纪期间,普通法虽然在英国建立了坚实的法律框架,但也开始显示出其局限性,特别是由于社会和经济的快速发展。新类型的纠纷和复杂的情况不断出现,现有的普通法框架难以充分解决这些问题。在这种情况下,人们开始寻求传统普通法体系之外的其他解决方案。面对这些挑战,诉讼当事人将国王视为 "正义之泉"。他们向王室法庭提出上诉,强调其案件的特殊性,希望获得更灵活的、适合其具体需求的司法。这种做法基于这样一种理念,即国王作为君主,拥有伸张正义的最终权力,可以在普通法律不充分或不适当的情况下进行干预。


This trend led to a strengthening of the role of the Court of Chancery. Initially, the Chancery was responsible for managing the King's administrative affairs, but it gradually evolved into a court of justice. The Chancellor, acting on behalf of the King, began to deal with cases that could not be adequately resolved by the common law courts, applying principles of equity. The Chancellor's Court thus filled the gaps in the Common Law by dealing with cases that required a more nuanced and flexible approach. The concept of equity, as distinct from the strict rules of the Common Law, enabled the Chancellor to provide fairer solutions tailored to particular situations.
这一趋势加强了大法官法庭的作用。最初,大法官法庭负责管理国王的行政事务,但后来逐渐演变成了一个司法法庭。大法官代表国王,开始运用衡平法原则处理普通法法院无法充分解决的案件。因此,大法官法院填补了普通法的空白,处理需要更细致、更灵活方法的案件。有别于普通法的严格规则,衡平法的概念使大法官能够针对特定情况提供更公平的解决方案。


The use of equity in the English legal system was a response to the limitations of the Common Law, particularly its procedural rigidity. Whereas the common law was heavily weighted towards established rules and procedures, equity offered a more flexible approach based on case-by-case justice. The Court of Chancellor, acting on behalf of the King, played a central role in the application of equity. In dispensing justice, the Chancellor did not rely strictly on the law as in the Common Law, but rather on his conscience and the principles of equity. This approach made it possible to consider the moral and ethical aspects of a case, thus offering fairer and more balanced solutions, particularly in situations where the strict application of the Common Law could have led to an unjust outcome.
在英国法律体系中使用衡平法是为了应对普通法的局限性,尤其是其程序上的僵化。普通法偏重于既定的规则和程序,而衡平法则提供了一种以个案公正为基础的更为灵活的方法。大法官法庭代表国王行事,在衡平法的应用中发挥着核心作用。在伸张正义时,大法官并不像普通法那样严格依据法律,而是依据自己的良知和公平原则。这种方法可以考虑案件的道德和伦理方面,从而提供更公平、更平衡的解决方案,尤其是在严格适用普通法可能导致不公正结果的情况下。


One of the main advantages of equity was its ability to overcome the shortcomings and rigidities of the Common Law, particularly with regard to formal defects. Under the common law system, litigation could often fail for simple procedural errors, even if the plaintiff's claims were substantiated in substance. Equity, on the other hand, made it possible to overcome these formal obstacles and focus on the merits of the case. The distinction between common law and equity thus led to the emergence of two parallel but complementary systems in English law. Whereas the common law emphasised tradition, consistency and precedent, equity focused on individual justice and flexibility. This duality enabled the English legal system to respond in a more comprehensive and nuanced way to diverse legal needs and situations, thereby enhancing the overall efficiency of the administration of justice.
衡平法的主要优势之一是能够克服普通法的缺陷和僵化,尤其是在形式缺陷方面。在普通法体系下,即使原告的主张在实质上成立,诉讼也往往会因简单的程序错误而失败。而衡平法则可以克服这些形式上的障碍,专注于案件的是非曲直。因此,普通法与衡平法的区别导致英国法律中出现了两种平行但互补的体系。普通法强调传统、一致性和先例,而衡平法则注重个人正义和灵活性。这种二元性使英国法律体系能够更全面、更细致地应对不同的法律需求和情况,从而提高司法的整体效率。


The procedure of equity, applied by the Court of Chancellor in England, was not conceived as a remedy for the shortcomings of the Common Law, but rather as a complement offering more flexible tools better suited to certain legal situations. This distinct approach to justice has grown in popularity over time, due to its ability to offer fairer and more personalised solutions than those provided by the Common Law. Equity, by focusing on the specific needs and unique circumstances of each case, made it possible to resolve disputes that might have been mishandled or unresolved by the more rigid Common Law system. For example, equity could offer remedies such as injunctions, trusts and specific decrees, which were not available under the Common Law.
英国大法官法庭适用的衡平法程序,并不是为了弥补普通法的缺陷,而是作为一种补充,提供更灵活的工具,更适合某些法律情况。随着时间的推移,这种独特的司法方式越来越受欢迎,因为它能够提供比普通法更公平、更个性化的解决方案。衡平法通过关注每个案件的具体需求和独特情况,能够解决普通法体系可能处理不当或无法解决的纠纷。例如,衡平法可以提供禁令、信托和特定法令等普通法所不具备的补救措施。


The growing popularity of the Court of Chancery and Equity led to an increase in the amount of litigation brought before it. This was largely due to the perception that equity offered fairer justice that was more attentive to the detail of each case. However, this trend caused some tension with Common Law judges. The Common Law courts, seeing some of their cases transferred to the Court of the Chancellor, suffered a decline in income and influence. This conflict between common law and equity revealed the limitations and challenges of each system, while highlighting the need for a more integrated approach to justice. Over time, the principles of equity were gradually incorporated into the general legal system, leading to greater harmonisation between the two approaches. This integration eventually led to a more comprehensive and nuanced legal system, capable of responding more adequately to the diversity of legal needs.
大法官法庭和衡平法院越来越受欢迎,导致向其提起的诉讼数量增加。这主要是由于人们认为衡平法提供了更公平的司法,更关注每个案件的细节。然而,这一趋势与普通法法官之间的关系有些紧张。普通法法院的部分案件被移交给了大法官法院,收入和影响力都有所下降。普通法与衡平法之间的冲突揭示了每种制度的局限性和挑战,同时也凸显了采用更加综合的司法方法的必要性。随着时间的推移,衡平法原则逐渐被纳入普通法律体系,从而使两种方法更加协调。这种融合最终形成了一个更全面、更细致的法律体系,能够更充分地应对法律需求的多样性。


The relationship between common law and equity in England has been marked by a period of conflict, but also by a search for compromise and harmonisation. This conflict between common law and equity judges has been driven by fundamental differences in their legal approaches and methodologies. At the heart of the conflict was the question of which system should prevail in the event of disagreement between the decisions of the Common Law courts and those of the Chancellor's Court, which applied the principles of equity. In the end, it was decided that, in the event of a conflict between the two, equity should prevail. This decision reflected the recognition of equity as a means of correcting the potential rigidities and injustices of the Common Law.
在英格兰,普通法与衡平法之间的关系经历了一段冲突时期,但同时也在寻求妥协与协调。普通法法官和衡平法法官之间的冲突是由他们在法律方式和方法上的根本差异所导致的。冲突的核心问题是,如果普通法法院的判决与适用衡平法原则的大法官法院的判决出现分歧,应以哪种制度为准。最后的决定是,如果两者发生冲突,应以衡平法为准。这一决定反映了人们承认衡平法是纠正普通法潜在的僵化和不公正的一种手段。


However, a definitive resolution and unification of the two systems had to wait until the eighteenth century. At that time, the various Royal Courts of Justice, including the Court of Westminster (representing the Common Law) and the Court of the Chancellor (applying equity), were consolidated into a higher court. This consolidation enabled the two sources of law to be used jointly and undifferentiated, thus combining the rigour and predictability of the common law with the flexibility and individualised justice of equity. In this unified system, in the event of conflict between common law and equity, the primacy of equity has been maintained. This prevalence of equity over Common Law in the event of conflict ensured that final decisions were fair and balanced, taking into account the particular aspects of each case.
然而,两种制度的最终解决和统一要等到十八世纪。当时,包括威斯敏斯特法院(代表普通法)和大法官法院(适用衡平法)在内的各皇家法院合并为一个高级法院。这一合并使两种法律渊源得以无差别地共同使用,从而将普通法的严谨性和可预见性与衡平法的灵活性和个性化司法结合起来。在这一统一的体系中,当普通法与衡平法发生冲突时,衡平法的优先地位得以保持。在发生冲突时,衡平法优先于普通法,这确保了最终裁决的公正和平衡,同时考虑到每个案件的特殊方面。


The distinction between continental and English legal systems is marked by the different approach to the codification of the law. Whereas continental countries, influenced by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, adopted codification as a means of systematising and rationalising their laws, England maintained its attachment to a common law system based on case law. In continental law systems, codification was seen as a way of modernising the law and making it more accessible and comprehensible to citizens. Codes, such as the famous Code Napoléon in France, sought to bring together the rules of law in an organised and systematic whole, reflecting the Enlightenment ideals of rationality and universality. These codification efforts marked a significant turning point, establishing clear and uniform legal bases in the countries that adopted them.
大陆法系和英国法系的区别在于编纂法律的方法不同。受启蒙运动和法国大革命的影响,欧洲大陆国家将编纂作为使其法律系统化和合理化的一种手段,而英国则坚持以判例法为基础的普通法体系。在欧洲大陆法系中,编纂被视为使法律现代化的一种方式,使法律更易于为公民所理解和使用。法典,如法国著名的《拿破仑法典》,试图将法律规则汇集成一个有组织、有系统的整体,体现启蒙运动关于理性和普遍性的理想。这些法典编纂工作标志着一个重要的转折点,为采用这些法典的国家建立了明确统一的法律基础。


In England, by contrast, the notion of codification as understood on the Continent was virtually unknown. The English legal system continued to rely heavily on Common Law and the principles of equity. Instead of written codes, English law developed through judicial decisions handed down over time. English lawyers often refer to decisions dating back as far as the eighteenth century, underlining the importance of precedent in legal practice. This divergence between Common Law and Civil Law systems reflects fundamentally different legal philosophies and traditions. Whereas continental countries have sought to establish clear, codified rules, England has favoured a more organic and evolutionary system, where the law is shaped and adapted by judicial decisions. This approach has enabled the English legal system to remain flexible and adaptable, although less codified and systematised than its continental counterparts.
相比之下,在英国,欧洲大陆所理解的编纂概念几乎无人知晓。英国的法律体系仍然在很大程度上依赖于普通法和衡平法原则。英国法律没有成文法典,而是通过长期流传下来的司法判决发展起来的。英国律师经常提到早在十八世纪的判决,这凸显了先例在法律实践中的重要性。普通法系和大陆法系之间的这种分歧反映了根本不同的法律理念和传统。大陆法系国家寻求建立明确的成文法规则,而英国则倾向于更有机和渐进的体系,即通过司法判决来塑造和调整法律。这种方法使英国的法律体系保持了灵活性和适应性,尽管其法典化和系统化程度低于欧洲大陆国家。


The assertion that Anglo-Saxon law has not been influenced by Roman law because it is judicial law requires qualification. Although the Anglo-Saxon legal system, or Common Law, is distinguished by its approach based on case law and judicial precedents, it has been indirectly influenced by Roman law through various historical and legal channels, notably during the period of the Roman Empire in Great Britain and later through interactions with Canon Law and Romano-Germanic Law on the European continent. However, it is true that Common Law developed relatively independently of the civil law system based on Roman law, which is predominant in continental Europe. In countries applying the Anglo-American Common Law system, case law is regarded as a formal source of law. When faced with a dispute, judges first look to see if a similar case has been decided in the past. If a precedent exists, the judge is generally obliged to follow it in his or her decision. This practice, known as "stare decisis" (keeping to past decisions), ensures the consistency and predictability of the law. Conversely, when a judge is faced with a new case with no clear precedent, his or her decision establishes a new precedent. This new precedent will then be binding on all judges of the same or lower rank, thus guiding future decisions in similar cases. This rule of precedent is fundamental to the Common Law system and leads to the formation of a body of case law. Case law is therefore the law formulated and developed through court cases. It differs from the civil law system in that it evolves primarily through court judgments rather than through codes or statutes. This characteristic gives the Common Law system flexibility and the ability to adapt to social changes and new situations, although it can also lead to a certain complexity and a need for constant legal interpretation.
盎格鲁-撒克逊法律是司法法律,因此没有受到罗马法的影响,这种说法需要加以限定。虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊法律体系(或称普通法)的特点是以判例法和司法先例为基础,但它通过各种历史和法律渠道间接受到罗马法的影响,特别是在大不列颠罗马帝国时期,以及后来通过与欧洲大陆的教会法和罗马-日耳曼法的互动。不过,普通法的发展确实相对独立于以罗马法为基础的民法体系,而罗马法在欧洲大陆占主导地位。在采用英美普通法体系的国家,判例法被视为正式的法律渊源。面对争议时,法官首先要看过去是否有类似的案件被判决过。如果存在先例,法官通常有义务在其判决中遵循先例。这种做法被称为 "stare decisis"(遵循过去的判决),可确保法律的一致性和可预测性。相反,当法官面对一个没有明确先例的新案件时,他或她的判决就会确立一个新的先例。这一新先例将对所有同级或更低级别的法官具有约束力,从而指导今后类似案件的判决。这种先例规则是普通法体系的根本,并导致判例法体系的形成。因此,判例法是通过法院案例制定和发展起来的法律。它与大陆法系的不同之处在于,它主要通过法院判决而非法典或成文法来发展。这一特点赋予了普通法体系灵活性和适应社会变化和新情况的能力,但也可能导致一定的复杂性和不断进行法律解释的需要。


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Version actuelle datée du 12 décembre 2023 à 15:30

根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]

法律的演变和现代国家的形成是一个复杂、多层次的过程,与社会的历史和文化密切相关。我们所熟知的现代国家大约在三个世纪前开始形成,标志着政治权力管理的一个重要转折点。这一时期的特点是权力集中、国界清晰划分以及结构化政府机构的建立。与此同时,公法作为一个独特的法律领域出现了,它规范国家与公民之间的关系以及国家本身的职能,包括宪法、行政法、财政法和刑法。

与公法相比,私法的历史要悠久得多,可以追溯到 2000 多年前。私法涉及个人之间的关系,涵盖合同法、财产法、家庭法和继承法等领域。现代私法的许多原则都源自罗马法,罗马法建立的法律基础和概念至今仍然适用。例如,私法的核心概念--合同的概念就起源于罗马的法律实践和理论。

国际法虽然源远流长,但在近几个世纪中得到了显著发展。它是随着国际关系和世界贸易的日益复杂而发展起来的。这一法律领域规范国家与国际组织之间的关系,面对气候变化和人权等全球性挑战,它仍在不断发展。国际法演变的一个重要例子是第二次世界大战后联合国的成立,为和平、安全与合作制定了国际标准。

十九世纪末二十世纪初瑞士法律的统一为如何协调法律体系提供了一个具体实例。瑞士法学家尤金-胡贝尔(Eugène Huber)在这一过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。根据瑞士几千年来形成的法典和传统,胡贝尔成功地统一了瑞士各州的法律体系。他的工作促成了《瑞士民法典》的制定,该法典已成为影响其他国家的法律编纂典范。

因此,法律的发展和现代国家的形成反映了各个时代的历史、文化和社会影响。公法、私法和国际法是这一演变的成果,展示了法律体系如何适应和发展,以应对不断变化的社会需求。

伟大法律传统的影响[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

瑞士私法是近两千年历史法律传统的奇妙组合。1912年起草的《民法典》和《义务法典》是这一综合体的典型代表。这些立法文件标志着瑞士法律史上的一个转折点,象征着瑞士法律体系统一和现代化的一个重要阶段。

罗马法对瑞士立法的影响是毋庸置疑的。从罗马帝国继承下来的这一法律体系引入了合同、财产和义务等基本概念,这些概念是现代私法的支柱。这些最初在罗马法中提出的理念经过调整以适应当代需要,但其本质仍深深植根于罗马原则。除罗马法外,日耳曼法也对瑞士法律体系的形成起到了至关重要的作用。日耳曼法起源于日耳曼部落,强调当地的习俗和惯例,尤其是在财产和家庭关系方面。日耳曼法以社区为中心,强调当地习俗,与罗马法的形式主义形成了鲜明对比。从基督教传统中发展而来的教会法也对瑞士立法产生了影响。尽管教会法的作用主要是宗教性的,但它也管理着婚姻等民事生活的重要方面。它的影响提醒人们宗教在欧洲法律形成过程中的历史重要性。最后,瑞士的现代法学派代表了古代法律传统在当代现实中的演变。该学派是对罗马法、日耳曼法和教会法的原则进行调整和整合的产物,经过重新塑造以应对现代世界的社会、经济和政治挑战。这一传统见证了瑞士法律体系不断发展并和谐融合各种历史影响的能力。

简而言之,瑞士私法是不同法律传统独特融合的结果,这种融合创造了一个历史悠久并适应当代世界需求的法律体系。1912年制定的《民法典》和《义务法典》体现了这种融合,说明了瑞士是如何通过整合这些不同的传统,成功地创建了一个连贯而有效的法律框架。

罗马法[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

罗马从公元前 5 世纪到公元 5 世纪,历时 1000 年。罗马帝国建立了一套适用于帝国所有罗马公民和自由人的统一制度。这一时期概括了古罗马的兴起、鼎盛和衰落。在这个时代,罗马从一个小城邦发展成为横跨三大洲的庞大帝国。在这一千年中,罗马最重要的成就之一是发展了自己的法律体系。这一逐渐形成的体系最终构成了一套适用于所有罗马公民以及生活在帝国的自由人的统一规则和标准。这一法律框架对于管理这样一个庞大而多样化的帝国至关重要。罗马法律体系的特点是创新,如民法概念(规范公民之间的关系)和万民法(涉及国家和民族之间的关系)。这些概念极大地影响了现代法律体系,尤其是在遵循民法传统的国家。罗马法最引人注目的一点是它在帝国内的普遍适用。无论被征服民族的种族和文化如何多样,罗马法都提供了一个共同的框架,有助于整合和有效管理这些不同的领土。这种普遍性也有助于罗马的影响力扩展到其政治边界之外,并为后来欧洲和地中海世界许多地区法律体系的发展奠定了基础。罗马帝国还出现了重要的法律人物,如法学家,他们解释、发展和教授法律。他们的著作和学说为后来公元六世纪查士丁尼皇帝的《民法大全》奠定了基础,这部法律汇编对西方法律的发展产生了重大影响。罗马在这一千年间的历史不仅是领土扩张和军事强盛的历史,也是对法律领域做出卓越贡献的历史。罗马法律体系的普遍性和公平性原则为西方世界的法律实践奠定了基础,其遗产在当代法律体系中依然存在。

罗马法是当代许多法律体系的基础,它有两个主要特点,每个特点都对这一古老法律体系的发展和完善起到了至关重要的作用。

一方面,罗马法具有很强的理论和习惯成分,这些成分被小心翼翼地转化为书面形式,即所谓的 "ius"。这种书面传统从根本上说是以罗马法学家的解释和分析为基础的,他们的工作随着时间的推移塑造并完善了法律。这些法学家,如盖乌斯、乌尔比安和查士丁尼,不仅解释了现有的法律,还制定了影响法律实践的法律原则,其影响远远超出了罗马时代。他们的影响在 6 世纪查士丁尼皇帝编纂的《民法大全》中尤为明显。除学说外,由罗马公民的习俗和惯例组成的罗马习惯法也逐渐被编纂成法典,使法律能够在整个帝国统一、系统地适用。另一方面,皇帝的决定和共和国机关的行动在罗马法的演变过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。在帝国时期,皇帝有权发布具有法律效力的诏书和法令。这些帝国宣言或 "宪法 "可以修改或建立新的法律规范,在应对帝国不断变化的需求方面发挥着至关重要的作用。在帝国时代之前的共和国时期,参议院和人民议会等机构也对法律的制定产生了重要影响。这些机构通过的法律被称为 "leges",是法律框架的另一个基本组成部分。

成文法和教义传统与帝国和共和国的决定之间的互动创造了一个丰富而充满活力的法律体系。这一体系不仅管理着罗马帝国的日常生活,也为西方法律的发展奠定了基础。罗马法中发展起来的原则和结构,如契约概念、财产权和刑法基础,继续对现代法律体系,尤其是遵循大陆法系传统的法律体系产生着深远的影响。罗马法的这一遗产证明了法律具有适应和发展的能力,同时又保持了跨世纪的连续性和一致性。

5 世纪前后罗马法的形成是西方法律史上的一个关键时刻。在这一时期,罗马法律和法律原则被正式编纂成法典,这是保存和传承罗马法律遗产的关键过程。这一时期最重要的事件之一是狄奥多西二世皇帝于 438 年编纂法律。狄奥多西法典》或《狄奥多西法典》是一项重大成就。它汇集并整理了自君士坦丁一世统治以来罗马皇帝颁布的诏书、法令和法律。这种编纂对于统一和澄清罗马法律至关重要,因为罗马法律在过去几个世纪中得到了长足的发展,有时甚至是杂乱无章的。狄奥多西法典》不仅在狄奥多西统治的东罗马帝国,而且在西罗马帝国都产生了持久的影响。它为皇帝和法院提供了法律参考,影响了拜占庭帝国以及继承西方罗马帝国的蛮族王国后来的法律发展。

狄奥多西二世时期的法律编纂是罗马法律从主要基于传统和习俗的体系向结构更为正式的法典化体系过渡的关键一步。这一转变使人们对罗马法有了更好的理解和应用,并为进一步的编纂工作奠定了基础,特别是查士丁尼皇帝在六世纪委托编纂的《民法大全》。5 世纪罗马法的编纂,尤其是狄奥多西二世时期的编纂,标志着法律史上的一个重要阶段。它使罗马法律遗产得以保存并传承给后代,对当代西方法律体系产生了重大影响。

西罗马帝国于 476 年灭亡,不仅在政治和社会方面,而且在法律发展方面都标志着一个重大的历史转折点。在西罗马帝国崩溃的同时,东罗马帝国,即后来的拜占庭帝国,继续繁荣发展。正是在这种背景下,拜占庭帝国最有影响力的皇帝之一查士丁尼一世采取了历史上最雄心勃勃的法律举措之一:制定《查士丁尼法典》。查士丁尼在位时是 6 世纪,他看到了改革和系统化罗马法的重要性,当时的罗马法散见于众多文本、诏书和法令中,往往相互矛盾或已经过时。529 至 534 年间,他和他的法学家团队在特里波尼安的指导下,着手编纂、修订和整理这些法律。这项不朽的工作最终促成了《民法典》(Corpus Juris Civilis)或 "民法体系 "的诞生,该体系由《法典》(Codex)、《摘要》(Digesta 或 Pandectae)、《制度》(Institutiones)和《新宪法》(Novellae Constitutiones)组成。

查士丁尼法典》汇集了现有的帝国宪法。文摘》汇集了罗马著名法学家的观点和裁决。宪法》是学生的法律入门教科书,《新宪法》则收录了 534 年后颁布的新法律。查士丁尼法典》的重要性在于其对罗马法的系统化及其对欧洲法律发展的持久影响。它是许多欧洲国家民法的基础,并影响了全世界的法律体系。即使在 1453 年君士坦丁堡陷落之后,《民法大全》在西欧仍被作为法律参考资料加以研究和使用,在法律文艺复兴和现代法律制度的形成过程中发挥了关键作用。因此,在西罗马帝国崩溃的同时,罗马法的遗产却在拜占庭帝国得到了保存和复兴。查士丁尼法典》证明了罗马法律遗产的坚忍不拔和顽强不屈,至今仍是世界历史上对法律理论和实践最重要的贡献之一。

西罗马帝国灭亡后,东罗马帝国(即后来的拜占庭帝国)对罗马法进行了重大改革。在六世纪查士丁尼皇帝的领导下,这一改革导致了《民法大全》(或称《查士丁尼法典》)的诞生,它代表了罗马法在保存和系统化方面的不朽努力。民法大全》以《查士丁尼法典》为开端,汇集了帝国宪法--主要是皇帝的决定和法令。该法典取代了早期的《狄奥多西法典》,集中了哈德良皇帝时期的所有帝国法律。法典旨在提供清晰、有条理的帝国法律,使其更易于理解和应用。其次,《文摘》(或称《法典》)是《法典》的重要组成部分。它是从古典罗马的法学家们撰写的 1,500 多本书中摘录的大量内容。这部分内容构成了法律学说,代表了罗马法学家积累的智慧和解释。文摘》是法官和律师的指南,为他们提供了解释和适用法律的详细资源。对于法律专业的学生来说,《制度汇编》是一本基础教科书,以通俗易懂的方式介绍了罗马法的基本原则和结构。学院》在法律教育中发挥了重要作用,确保法律知识代代相传。最后,《新法》(Novelles)收录了查士丁尼在《法典》成书后颁布的法律,从而完善了《法典》。这些文本反映了为满足拜占庭帝国当代需要而对法律进行的修改和调整。民法典》对西方世界的法律发展产生了深远而持久的影响。它的编纂不仅保存了古罗马的法律遗产,还为许多欧洲国家的民法奠定了基础。法典》的影响远远超出了拜占庭帝国,其原则和方法几个世纪以来被各种法律体系所采用和调整。因此,查士丁尼的著作确保了罗马法律智慧的延续,使后代人能够理解并使用这些智慧。

第二个千年伊始,查士丁尼的著作开始对西方中世纪法律世界产生重大影响。西罗马帝国灭亡后,在随后的中世纪(包括中世纪晚期),西欧大部分地区失去了与古罗马法律遗产的直接联系。然而,这种情况在 11 世纪和 12 世纪左右开始发生变化。12 世纪的文艺复兴是西欧知识和文化复兴的时期,它对查士丁尼文本的重新发现起到了至关重要的作用。意大利博洛尼亚等城市开始出现大学,它们是罗马法的研究和教学中心。博洛尼亚大学尤其成为法律研究的参考中心。伊尔内留斯(Irnerius)等学者及其后继者(被称为 "Glossators")对《民法大全》进行了分析、评论和讲授,帮助其在整个中世纪欧洲传播。在此期间,查士丁尼的法典被翻译、解释和改编,以满足当时的法律和社会需求。中世纪的法学家们将罗马法的元素融入当地的法律体系,这一过程极大地影响了欧洲民法的发展。这种融合促进了欧洲第一批国家法律体系的形成,如天主教教会法和各种地区习惯法。第二个千年的开始标志着罗马法在西欧的重新发现和整合时期,查士丁尼的文本在这一过程中发挥了核心作用。这种影响为欧洲现代法律体系奠定了基础,并对西方法律史做出了重大贡献。

日耳曼法[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

5 世纪日耳曼部落的征服是前罗马帝国领土发生重大转变的时期。这些部落,如法兰克人、勃艮第人等,在罗马领土上渗透并建立了自己的势力,同时也带来了他们自己的法律制度和习俗。这一时期出现了独特的法律传统: 日耳曼法律。

与集中化和法典化的罗马法律不同,日耳曼部落主要依靠口头习俗和部落规则。当他们入侵罗马帝国各地并成为殖民地时,他们保留了自己的法律。例如,法兰克人的法律(称为《萨利卡法》)和勃艮第人的法律(《勃艮第法》)就是这些民族特有的法律。这些法律规定了日常生活的方方面面以及社区内冲突的解决方式。与此同时,日耳曼统治下的罗马人继续按照罗马法律生活。这种不同法律体系的共存导致许多地区出现了法律上的双重性: 日耳曼法律适用于征服者,而罗马法律适用于当地居民。

随着时间的推移,随着与罗马文明的交流,日耳曼人开始将他们的习俗写成文字,通常使用当时的学术和行政语言拉丁语。日耳曼习俗的书面化是其法律体系演变的重要一步。它不仅为后代保留了这些习俗,还促进了这些习俗与罗马法元素的融合。因此,这一时期欧洲历史的特点是复杂的文化和法律互动,罗马和日耳曼传统相互影响。采用拉丁字母记录日耳曼法律就是这种融合的一个例子。随着时间的推移,这种法律传统的融合促进了现代欧洲法律体系的形成,其中融合了罗马法和日耳曼法的元素。

在罗马帝国,尤其是在地中海盆地,罗马法的范围和适用性非常广泛,遍及整个帝国。罗马法的这种普遍性与日耳曼部落所采用的方法形成了鲜明对比,后者的法律更具个人特色。罗马法具有成文法体系和普遍原则,旨在统一适用于帝国的所有公民,无论其种族出身或社会地位如何。这种做法的目的是建立一个共同的法律基础,便于管理这样一个庞大而多样化的帝国。罗马法涉及生活的方方面面,从私法(如家庭法和合同法)到公法(包括行政法和刑法)。其范围涵盖整个地中海盆地,反映了罗马帝国的地理范围和文化影响。日耳曼部落则实行属人法。每个部落,无论是法兰克人、勃艮第人、西哥特人还是其他部落,都有自己的一套法律和习俗来管理其成员的生活。这些法律一般都是口口相传,反映了每个部落的特定传统和价值观。与罗马法不同的是,日耳曼法律并不是为了普遍适用而设计的,而是为了适应每个部落的特殊性。

当这些日耳曼部落定居在前罗马帝国的领土上时,他们保留了各自的法律体系。这样,他们就造成了同一领土内的不同族群受不同法律体系管辖的局面。例如,日耳曼部落的成员要遵守本部落的法律,而土生土长的罗马人则要继续遵守罗马法律。这种法律上的双重性对罗马帝国之后欧洲的社会组织和法律制度的发展有着重要影响。因此,罗马普遍法和日耳曼属人法的共存和互动在欧洲法律传统的形成过程中发挥了至关重要的作用,将普遍法和基于种族或部落身份的法律概念融为一体。这种历史性的综合奠定了欧洲现代法律体系的基础,在欧洲,普遍性规范和个性化权利之间的紧张关系继续影响着法律实践和理论。

教会法[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

教会法是一种独特的法律体系,在天主教会的组织和管理中发挥着核心作用。这一法律体系有别于民事法律体系,专门关注教会的内部事务,以及教会与信徒和整个社会的互动方式。教会法涵盖的范围很广,包括教会的章程和组织、教会职能、教会成员的地位以及教会财产的管理。它还对礼仪程序、圣礼以及神职人员和教友的纪律规范等方面做出了规定。这一法律体系基于一套源自基督教的义务论原则,反映了基督教的价值观和教义。

教会法的一个显著特点是它希望扩展到所有人,因为它不仅要指导教会内部的行为,还要影响更广泛社会中的道德和伦理。尽管教会法的直接适用范围仅限于天主教会成员,但其原则往往对许多社会的法律和社会规范产生重大影响,尤其是在具有基督教传统的国家。

几个世纪以来,教会法不断演变,以适应社会和教会本身的变化。大公会议、教皇法令和教会法庭的裁决在教会法的发展和更新中发挥了重要作用。现代教会法演变过程中最重要的时刻之一是 1917 年颁布的《教会法典》(1983 年修订),该法典对天主教会的法律规范进行了系统化和更新。

教会法是天主教会结构和运作的重要组成部分。它代表了一种法律传统,虽然有别于民事法律制度,但对全世界许多社会的道德和伦理发展产生了相当大的影响。

第一个千年[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

罗马帝国从一个以异教为主的实体向基督教帝国的过渡是西方历史上的一个关键时刻,其标志是四世纪的两项重要法令。

第一个关键转折点是君士坦丁一世和利西尼乌斯皇帝于 313 年颁布的《米兰敕令》。该诏书不是基督教的合法化,而是一项宗教宽容法令。它结束了对基督徒的迫害,给予罗马帝国所有人信奉宗教的自由。这一法令标志着罗马帝国宗教政策的彻底改变,给予基督教合法地位和自由发展与传播的机会。第二个决定性时刻是皇帝狄奥多西一世于 380 年颁布的《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》,又称《民众敕令》。该法令宣布,所有罗马公民都必须遵循罗马和亚历山大的主教们所解释的基督教信仰,他们遵循的是 325 年尼西亚大公会议所确立的教义。这意味着帝国官方宗教多样性的终结,基督教成为国家认可的主导宗教。

这些发展对罗马帝国乃至整个欧洲的宗教、文化和政治历史产生了深远的影响。罗马帝国皈依基督教不仅改变了帝国的宗教动态,还为教会在世俗事务中权力的崛起奠定了基础,影响了未来几个世纪欧洲法律、政治和社会制度的形成。向基督教帝国的转变也促进了教会法的出现和巩固,使其成为天主教会和欧洲社会中具有影响力的法律体系。

罗马帝国皈依基督教标志着当时社会和政治结构的彻底转变,深刻影响了教会与国家之间的互动。380 年《帖撒罗尼迦敕令》颁布后,基督教成为帝国的官方宗教,这不仅加强了教会在罗马社会中的地位,也为罗马法律和教会实践的相互影响创造了肥沃的土壤。教会以前一直在官方政治结构的边缘活动,现在却成为了罗马社会的核心。这种融合产生了几个重要的影响。首先,教会开始采用和调整罗马法的元素来管理自己的内部事务,特别是在管理其财产和规范其内部程序方面。例如,罗马法中有关财产和合同的原则被纳入教会资产的管理中。

同时,受罗马法律原则的影响,教会法的发展标志着教会的演变迈出了重要的一步。这一独特的法律体系虽然以基督教教义和经文为基础,但在其结构和应用方面反映了罗马法的许多方面。教会法成为规范教会内部事务(包括教士纪律和圣事实践)的重要框架。此外,教会与国家之间的关系也有了新的发展。罗马皇帝虽然主要行使世俗权力,但往往对教会事务有重大影响。相反,教会开始在世俗事务中发挥影响,不仅指导精神事务,还影响社会和法律规范。因此,这段历史时期的特点是罗马法律和行政结构与教会之间的动态互动。这种协同作用为中世纪欧洲的未来发展奠定了基础,塑造了当时的政治、社会和法律结构。帝国皈依基督教不仅是宗教信仰的改变,也带来了社会和法律组织的深刻变革,其影响在当代的法律和政治制度中仍可感受到。

罗马帝国皈依基督教后,基督教和罗马法的影响远远超出了帝国疆界,也影响到了日耳曼各族人民,他们向罗马帝国汇聚,并生活在罗马帝国内部。在这一时期的欧洲历史上,罗马文化与日耳曼文化和法律制度之间的互动十分复杂,基督教的影响也日益加深。随着日耳曼部落在罗马帝国境内定居,他们与罗马文明及其法律和行政结构发生了密切接触。同时,基督教作为帝国的官方宗教,其传播开始对这些民族产生重大影响。日耳曼酋长往往为了寻求合法性和政治支持,逐渐信奉基督教,这导致他们的社会和法律结构发生了变化。

日耳曼人接受基督教不仅仅是宗教上的转变,还涉及对罗马法律及其原则的某些方面进行调整。例如,日耳曼传统上以部落习俗为基础的口传法律开始受到罗马法律概念的影响,尤其是在财产组织和民事事务管理方面。此外,基督教教士与日耳曼精英之间的互动也促进了罗马法律和行政知识的传播。教士们通常接受罗马传统教育,在日耳曼王国的行政管理和法律起草中发挥了关键作用。这种影响促成了日耳曼王国混合法律体系的出现,将日耳曼传统法律的元素与罗马法和教会法的元素结合在一起。这样,罗马法和基督教的影响远远超出了罗马帝国的边界,塑造了罗马帝国周边和内部日耳曼民族的文化和法律体系。这种互动对中世纪欧洲的发展起到了至关重要的作用,为现代法律和政治结构的出现奠定了基础。

教会法作为天主教会的法律体系,其发展源于多种来源,每种来源都带来了自己的影响和观点。这一体系的核心是《圣经》,尤其是《旧约》和《新约》,它们提供了基本原则和道德准则。除精神作用外,这些圣典还为基督教团体内部的行为和组织提供指导,从而影响教会法规范。教会法的另一个支柱是大公会议做出的决定,大公会议是主教和神学家的集会。这些大公会议在形成教会教义和教规方面发挥了决定性作用。例如,16 世纪召开的特伦特大公会议带来了重大改革,并颁布了许多塑造了现代教会法的教规。教皇法令也是教会法的重要来源。这些由教皇发布的文件涉及从教会纪律到圣礼管理等各种问题。由于其权威性,教令经常成为解释和应用教会法的重要参考。

除了这些教会渊源,教会法还受到地区习惯法的影响。教会的地方习俗和传统如果得到教会权威的承认,就可以获得法律地位。这些地方习俗反映了基督教习俗的多样性,并为教会法的丰富多彩做出了贡献。最后,罗马法,尤其是义务法对教会法的影响是毋庸置疑的。教会借鉴并改编了许多罗马法律原则来管理自己的事务。例如,罗马的合同和财产概念已被纳入教会财产管理和争端解决中。简而言之,教会法是各种来源和影响融合与调整的结果。从神圣经文的智慧到大公会议的决定、教皇法令、习惯法和罗马法原则,每一个元素都有助于形成一个法律体系,该体系在天主教会的管理中发挥了至关重要的作用,并对整个欧洲社会产生了深远的影响。

罗马法和教会法有一个共同的基本特征:它们都是成文法体系。这一特点对这两种法律体系的发展、传承和应用起着至关重要的作用。罗马法作为罗马帝国的法律体系,被正式编纂成各种书面文件。这些文件包括由皇帝和议会等罗马当局颁布的法律、诏书、法令和决议。这种编纂的著名例子包括汇集了帝国法律的《查士丁尼法典》、汇编了罗马法学家的意见和决定的《文摘》以及法律教学手册《制度》。这种书面的正式化使法律能够在广袤的罗马帝国得到一致和统一的应用。同样,天主教会的《教会法》也是一个成文法体系。它由教会当局,特别是大公会议和教皇制定的法律法规组成。教会法已被系统化地编入各种书面文本中,如《教会法典》,该法典组织并介绍了管理教会的规范。将这些法律法规写成文字,确保了世界各地教会在解释和应用这些法律法规时的统一性和明确性。罗马法和教会法的成文性质与习惯法体系形成了鲜明对比,后者通常以口头传统和未经编纂的惯例为基础。这些法律体系中书面文本的存在有利于法律知识的保存和传播,使人们能够对法律进行更深入的研究和更系统的应用。这一特点也促进了这些法律体系的演变和调整,以应对几个世纪以来的社会、经济和文化变化。

第一个千年结束[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

第一个千年末期,欧洲的社会和法律结构发生了重大变化。这一时期最引人注目的方面之一是旧法律的过时,尤其是罗马帝国和日耳曼各民族(如勃艮第人、西哥特人和法兰克人)遗留下来的法律。在这一时期,罗马帝国和日耳曼民族所理解和应用的成文法概念开始消退。曾经是法律和社会秩序基石的成文法典失去了其优越性。这部分是由于西罗马帝国的衰落和随之而来的政治分裂,以及日耳曼王国的崛起,而日耳曼王国并没有同样的法律编纂传统。

在这种情况下,基于种族或帝国归属的身份认同开始衰落,例如将自己定义为罗马人、勃艮第人、西哥特人或法兰克人。取而代之的是,身份和社会组织越来越多地由居住地来定义。人们更多地认同自己的居住地或地区,而不是民族或国籍。这一转变标志着人们对社会和法律秩序的认识发生了重大变化。因此,习惯法变得越来越重要。习惯法以当地世代口耳相传的传统和习俗为基础。每个地区,甚至每个地方都有自己的习俗来管理日常生活。这些习俗往往具有灵活性和适应性,反映了当地社区的需求和现实。

在这一时期,封建制度在欧洲兴起并得到巩固,在这种制度下,社会和政治关系主要建立在土地保有权和附庸关系的基础上。封建制度及其复杂的领主和附庸等级制度也有助于形成这一时期的法律和社会组织。第一个千年末期是欧洲深刻转型的时期,其特点是法律和社会秩序发生了变化。罗马和日耳曼成文法的过时以及习惯法和封建主义的兴起重新定义了欧洲社会的组织和治理方式。

第一个千年末期,习惯法在欧洲得到巩固,其原因在于日耳曼人和罗马人在大举入侵并逐渐融合之后,发生了一系列重大的社会和文化变革。这些移民运动和由此产生的互动导致欧洲许多地区对身份进行了深刻的重新定义。在大入侵(又称移民时期)期间,哥特人、汪达尔人、法兰克人和伦巴第人等日耳曼部落越过罗马帝国的边界,在欧洲各地定居下来。这些运动标志着西罗马帝国的终结,并导致新王国和新社会的形成,其中罗马文化和日耳曼文化相互融合。这种文化和社会的融合导致了身份的重新定义。人们不再严格地将自己视为罗马人、勃艮第人、西哥特人或法兰克人,而是开始根据自己生活的地方或地区来确定自己的身份。伴随着这一转变的是罗马和日耳曼成文法向以口头习俗和传统为基础的、更加面向地方的法律体系的转变。

这些地方习俗融合了罗马和日耳曼的传统,并根据社区的需求和现实情况进行了调整。法律不再以中央集权的成文法典为基础,而是成为一套口口相传的惯例和规范,通常由地方当局(如领主或社区大会)监督。这一时期还出现了封建制度,它加强了身份和法律的地方化。在这种制度下,忠诚和附庸关系是最重要的,规则和义务通常由封地或seigneury的习俗来定义。在第一个千年末期,习惯法在欧洲得到巩固,这是日耳曼人和罗马人大举入侵和融合之后身份融合和重新定义过程的结果。这一转变不可磨灭地塑造了中世纪欧洲的社会、文化和法律结构。

在第一个千年末期,欧洲经历了一个从罗马和日耳曼传统中继承下来的成文法观念显著衰落的时期。这一时期往往与学术文化,尤其是法律知识的丧失联系在一起。这对司法系统的运作和法律的适用产生了重大影响。随着成文法的使用逐渐消失,欧洲大部分地区进入了一个既有法律传统不易获取、不易理解,有时甚至被遗忘的时期。在司法中发挥关键作用的法官和地方当局往往缺乏正规的法律培训,对罗马法和日耳曼法知之甚少或一无所知。这种对成文法的无知导致人们越来越依赖于当地的习俗,尽管这些习俗实用且适应日常生活,但并不总能从正式法律体系的连贯性和严谨性中受益。

然而,教会法却摆脱了这一趋势。作为天主教会的法律体系,教会法在这一时期继续得到传授、发展和应用。教会神职人员和学者通常有机会接受更正规的教育,他们保持并传承着教会法的知识。中世纪开始兴起的大学在教会法的保存和教学以及欧洲法律研究的复兴中发挥了至关重要的作用。在其他形式的成文法衰落之时,教会法仍然是成文和结构化法律思想的堡垒。此外,天主教会作为一个影响广泛的机构,利用其教会法不仅影响宗教事务,还影响欧洲许多地区的社会甚至政治方面。因此,教会法不仅经受住了这一文化失落时期的考验,而且在随后的欧洲法律发展中发挥了关键作用,为罗马法的复兴和现代法律体系的形成奠定了基础。

在欧洲法律转型的这一时期,罗马法和日耳曼成文法退隐,我们看到了地方法律的出现,它更好地适应了特定社区的现实和需要。这一发展反映了对不断变化的环境的务实适应,以及对失去学术性法律文化所带来的挑战的回应。在许多地区,适用的法律是当地大多数居民的法律。这意味着法律规范和规则在很大程度上是由当地居民的风俗习惯决定的。因此,这种地方法律具有内在的灵活性和多样性,反映了欧洲各地传统和生活方式的多样性。

这种新的地方法律往往融合了古罗马和日耳曼法律的元素。尽管对这些法律体系的详细了解已经减少,但它们的影响仍以融入当地习俗的片段形式存在。例如,罗马法的某些原则,如与财产或合同有关的原则,可以与日耳曼法律实践交织在一起,特别是在家庭法和解决冲突方面。此外,这些地方法律体系还具有创新和适应能力的特点。解决具体法律问题的办法往往是根据具体情况制定的,不一定要参照成文法典或既定先例。这使得司法具有极大的灵活性,但也导致法律适用缺乏统一性和可预见性。这一时期虽然代表着罗马帝国法律正规化的某种退缩,但对于适应欧洲中世纪现实的法律体系的形成至关重要。这种地方法律的出现为后来欧洲国家和地区法律体系的发展奠定了基础,将历史影响与适应当地情况的创新融为一体。

中世纪时期,特别是西罗马帝国灭亡后,欧洲法律经历了重大变革,出现了主要在地方一级发展的新法律体系。与早期的罗马和日耳曼法律体系不同,这种法律不再采用正式成文法的形式,而是采用地方习惯法的形式。这种地方习惯法以口口相传的传统和惯例为基础,由社区实施。它反映了每个地区或地方特定的社会、经济和文化现实。因此,欧洲各地的习惯法差异极大,每个社区都有自己的习俗来规范日常生活的方方面面,如财产所有权、婚姻、继承和冲突解决等。这种缺乏统一性和不成文性质的习惯法有利有弊。一方面,它具有极大的灵活性,可以适应当地的具体情况。另一方面,它也可能导致法律的不确定性以及不同地区在适用司法方面的明显差异。

在这一时期,地方习惯法成为欧洲许多地区的主要法律体系。正式的成文法体系,如罗马法,主要保存在修道院或教会机构中,学术界以外的人基本上无法接触或遗忘。因此,对于大多数人来说,当地的习惯法是主要的,甚至是唯一的相关法律体系。这种习惯法的主导地位一直持续到中世纪大学的法学研究和罗马法的复兴,尤其是 11 世纪和 12 世纪以后。罗马法的重新崛起和大学的兴起对欧洲现代法律体系的奠基起到了至关重要的作用。然而,地方习惯法的影响依然重要,并继续影响着许多地区的法律体系。

中世纪时期,在西罗马帝国崩溃后以及日耳曼民族迁徙和定居期间,罗马和日耳曼法律体系并未完全消失,但其可获取性和对日常生活的直接影响却大大减弱。这些法律,尤其是罗马法,主要以书面文件的形式存在,保存在图书馆,尤其是修道院和教会机构的图书馆中。

在这一时期,欧洲对罗马法的了解和积极使用出现了某种程度的衰退。罗马法律文本,如查士丁尼的《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis)中编纂的法律文本,大多数人,包括许多地方法官和行政人员,往往无法获得。这些文本主要保存在修道院图书馆中,供少数教士和学者精英研究。然而,这种保存方式对于罗马法律知识的世代相传至关重要。同样,日耳曼法律虽然在某些情况下已经编纂成法典(如勃艮第人的法律或法兰克人的萨利卡法),但并不像当地习惯法那样普及或容易获得。这些日耳曼文本通常保存在修道院或皇家法庭中,与当地习惯法相比,它们的适用范围有限,因为当地习惯法更贴近人们的日常生活。

这种情况随着十二和十三世纪的文艺复兴而开始改变,当时欧洲的大学,如意大利的博洛尼亚,开始重新发现并教授罗马法。这一法律复兴导致了罗马法研究的复兴,并为随后欧洲法律体系的发展奠定了基础。因此,尽管日耳曼法和罗马法在一定程度上在这一时期被归入图书馆,但它们在这些学习中心的保存对它们的重新发现和对后来欧洲法律体系的影响至关重要。

第二个千年开始[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

语言学家:12 世纪 - 13 世纪[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

随着博洛尼亚大学对查士丁尼法律的重新发现和研究,12 世纪和 13 世纪标志着欧洲法律史上的一个关键时期。这一时期尤其值得注意的是,出现了在罗马法复兴过程中发挥核心作用的词汇学家、法学家和学者。博洛尼亚大学是中世纪最早和最有影响力的大学之一,在这所大学里,词汇学家们开始深入研究《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis),这是六世纪查士丁尼皇帝在君士坦丁堡制定的法律文本集。这些文本包括《法典》、《文摘》、《制度》和《小说》,是一部详尽的罗马法汇编。虽然这些文本已经保存了几个世纪,但直到这一时期才重新开始对它们进行系统的研究。注释者不仅重新发现了这些古籍,还着手对其进行注释和解释。他们的工作包括撰写 "注释 "或旁注,对原文进行澄清、解释和扩展。这种研究方法使查士丁尼法律更易于理解和适用于当代情况。

他们的研究方法标志着解决法律纠纷的方式发生了重大变化。传统习俗有时可能是武断的或违背理性的,而词汇编纂者并不完全依赖传统习俗,而是提倡一种更加理性和系统的方法。他们分析每个具体案件,寻求既符合法律条文,又合乎逻辑和公平的解决方案。纂修者的影响及其对《民法大全》的工作对欧洲法律的发展产生了深远的影响。他们为更深入地理解和更系统地应用罗马法奠定了基础,最终导致了欧洲民法传统的出现。在现代法律体系中,理性分析和参考基本法律文本仍然是法律实践的核心内容。

12 世纪和 13 世纪,纂修者对民法典进行了细致而创新的纂修,他们通常被视为欧洲法理学之父。他们对欧洲法律和法律方法论的影响深远而持久,标志着西方法律史上一个决定性的转折点。通过对罗马法文本的重新发现和评论,词汇家们不仅保存了珍贵的法律遗产,还彻底改变了欧洲的法律思想和实践方式。他们有条不紊的分析方法使人们对法律有了更深刻的理解和更系统的解释。通过对复杂的法律条文进行详细的注释和澄清,他们使罗马法变得通俗易懂并适用于当代情况。他们的工作促进了欧洲法律传统的形成,这一传统重视理性分析、参考成文法以及系统地应用法律原则。这一传统对现在的大陆法系的发展至关重要,大陆法系在欧洲大部分地区占主导地位,并影响了世界上的其他法律体系。词汇家们还奠定了法理学的基础,确立了解释法律和解决争端的方法。他们的影响不仅体现在大学教授和研究法律的方式上,也体现在日常的法律实践中。因此,通过复兴和丰富罗马法,词汇家们不仅保存了法律遗产,还帮助塑造了现代欧洲的法律思想和实践框架。他们的遗产仍然是欧洲法学的基石。

12 世纪和 13 世纪,博洛尼亚大学的词汇学家们的工作产生了相当大的影响,吸引了来自欧洲各地希望学习罗马法的学生。由于这些学者的努力,博洛尼亚成为了一个重要的法律学习中心,并在向欧洲大陆传播法律知识方面发挥了至关重要的作用。词汇学家的教学方法基于对罗马法文本的深入分析和严谨解读,在当时具有革命性意义。学生们不仅被丰富的教学内容所吸引,而且也被这种教学方法所吸引,因为这种方法可以培养学生对法律原则的深入和批判性理解。语法学家们教授如何将罗马法的原则应用到具体案例中,这在当时地方习惯法占主导地位的时代是非常抢手的技能。

来博洛尼亚向术语汇编者学习的学生来自欧洲各地,这有助于形成一个以罗马法传统为培训对象的法学家国际网络。回国后,这些学生传播他们所学到的知识,并经常在当地法律制度的发展和改革中发挥重要作用。他们还为新法学院的创建和法律教育在欧洲的传播做出了贡献。因此,博洛尼亚大学和词汇学家们的影响远远超出了意大利。他们的影响是罗马法在欧洲复兴的决定性因素,并为随后大陆法系的发展奠定了基础。得益于这些教诲,博洛尼亚大学数百年来一直是法律教育机构的典范,如今仍被公认为现代法律教育的摇篮之一。

调解员 14 世纪 - 15 世纪[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

在 14 世纪和 15 世纪,"词汇编纂者 "学说的影响以及罗马法逐渐融入欧洲法律实践的过程不断发展,其中调解人的作用尤为突出。这些调解人通常是教授和法学家,他们在罗马法与当地法律体系的融合中发挥了至关重要的作用,尤其是在意大利等地区。

调解人延续了词汇编纂者的工作,努力将罗马法的原则应用于解决具体的法律案件。当地法律通常以日耳曼习俗或传统为基础,面对这些情况,调解员们转而求助于罗马法,以找到更合适、更合理的解决方案。这种做法导致了当地法律的 "罗马化",尤其是在意大利。通过将罗马法的元素融入法律实践,调解人帮助丰富和完善了当地的法律体系。罗马法以其合理的结构、详尽的概念和系统的方法,为处理各种法律问题提供了一个更加完整的法律框架。

这一过程标志着欧洲法律演变的一个重要阶段。通过将罗马法的原则与当地习俗相结合,调解人帮助建立了更加统一和连贯的法律体系。这种综合也有助于形成欧洲现代法律体系的基础,这些体系往往将罗马法的元素与当地法律传统相结合。14 和 15 世纪调解人的作用对于罗马法在欧洲的传播和实际应用至关重要。他们的工作不仅有助于填补当地法律体系的空白,还在欧洲法律的协调和现代化方面发挥了至关重要的作用。

法律人文主义:16 世纪 - 17 世纪[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

十六和十七世纪,欧洲经历了一场被称为法律人文主义的重大思想运动。这场运动标志着人们对待和理解罗马法的方式出现了转折点,使其有别于前几个世纪的术语解释者和调解者的方法。

法律人文主义的特点是回归罗马法的原始渊源,尤其注重查士丁尼皇帝的《民法大全》中规定的法律的含义和精神。法律人文主义者试图以最纯粹的形式理解罗马法,剥离几个世纪以来由术语解释者和调解者积累起来的层层解释和评注。这种方法涉及对罗马法原文的直接、深入研究,从中世纪的解释转向对法律更真实、更历史性的理解。法律人文主义者强调语言学,即对文本的批判性研究,以重新发现查士丁尼和其他罗马来源制定的法律和原则背后的原始含义和意图。

法律人文主义还鼓励以更广阔的视角研究法律,将历史、哲学和文化知识融为一体。这种全面的研究方法使人们有可能将罗马法置于更广阔的文化和历史背景中,从而丰富对法律的理解,并促进对法律文本进行更细致和更开明的解释。法律人文主义运动对欧洲的法律发展产生了重大影响。它不仅有助于更好地理解罗马法,还影响了法律实践、法律教学和现代法律制度的形成。通过回归罗马法的渊源,法律人文主义者帮助为法律研究和实践奠定了坚实的基础,并继续影响着当代法律思想。

罗马法在西欧的融合[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

第二个千年期间,罗马法在西欧的融合经历了几个不同的阶段,每个阶段都对欧洲法学的复兴和演变做出了重要贡献。十二和十三世纪,随着词汇学家的出现,博洛尼亚大学成为了一场引人注目的知识运动的中心。这些学者着手恢复和研究《民法大全》(Corpus Juris Civilis),这是查士丁尼皇帝时期编纂的一部详尽的罗马法汇编。他们一丝不苟的工作不仅振兴了罗马法研究,还为现代欧洲法学奠定了基础。例如,最早的训诂学家之一伊尔内留斯(Irnerius)在分析和解释罗马法律条文方面发挥了重要作用,为人们理解条文提供了重要依据。14 世纪和 15 世纪出现了调解人,他们在将罗马法融入日常法律实践方面发挥了至关重要的作用。调解人利用罗马法的原则和解决方案来填补地方法律体系的空白,而地方法律体系往往是建立在不太正式的习俗和传统之上的。这导致了当地法律的 "罗马化",尤其是在意大利,调解人帮助丰富和完善了当地的法律实践。在 16 世纪和 17 世纪,法律人文主义标志着罗马法起源的回归,它试图不依赖于早期术语解释者和调解人的注释和解释来理解这些法律文本。Andrea Alciato 等法律人文主义者采用了一种语言学和历史学的方法,旨在把握罗马法律背后的原意和意图。这一时期的特点是对罗马法进行更具批判性和语境化的研究,对法律的教学和实践方式产生了深远影响。这些不同阶段共同塑造了罗马法在西欧的复兴和发展,对欧洲法理学的发展轨迹产生了不可磨灭的影响。它们不仅保存了珍贵的法律遗产,还为将罗马法原则与当代现实相结合的现代法律体系奠定了基础。

在中世纪和近代早期的欧洲,罗马法与当地习俗之间的动态关系复杂而迷人。虽然罗马法在西罗马帝国灭亡后似乎消失了,或者至少是大幅衰退了,但它通过吸收了其部分原则的地方习俗继续发挥着微妙的影响。随着罗马法的复兴(由博洛尼亚大学的词汇学家发起,并由调解人和法律人文主义者继续),这一古老的法律逐渐在欧洲,尤其是在具有深厚罗马传统的南部地区重新获得了地位。在这些地区,罗马法开始重新进入法律实践,往往取代或修改了前几个世纪发展起来的地方法律体系。

这种影响在意大利、西班牙和葡萄牙等罗马传统根深蒂固的国家尤为明显。在这些地区,随着罗马法原则被重新发现和整合,当地法律体系的 "罗马化 "进程也在加速。这些原则提供了一个更加连贯和系统的法律框架,而不是往往支离破碎和各不相同的地方习俗。例如,在意大利,罗马法的回归导致了当地法律实践的重大转变。在博洛尼亚和其他大学中心接受培训的律师开始将罗马法的教义应用于解决争端和制定新法律。同样,在西班牙,罗马法也影响了 13 世纪一部重要法典 "Siete Partidas "的编纂。虽然罗马法在西罗马帝国灭亡后似乎消失了,但它通过当地习俗得以保存下来。随着中世纪开始并持续到文艺复兴时期的法律复兴,它重新获得了卓越的地位,尤其是在南欧国家,它取代或改变了当地现有的法律体系。这一过程是欧洲现代法律体系形成的关键因素。

在《民法典》于 1804 年颁布之前,法国的法律体系分化严重,反映了该国历史和文化的复杂性。这种分化在法国南部和北部尤为明显,每个地区都有自己独特的法律方法和法律传统。在法国南部,罗马法的影响尤为强烈。罗马法的复兴始于中世纪,导致植根于罗马传统的地方习俗逐渐衰落。该地区保留了罗马帝国的直接遗产,罗马法被重新整合并在大学中教授。例如,奥尔良大学就是法国研究罗马法的重要中心。这种罗马法律传统及其复杂的原则和方法受到了南部地区的青睐,并逐渐取代了当地的习俗。然而,法国北部的情况有所不同。罗马法的到来和发展往往被视为对当地法律传统的威胁,因为当地法律传统更多地受到日耳曼法的影响。面对罗马法日益增长的影响力,出现了将日耳曼习俗写入法律的运动。中世纪习惯法运动的目的是通过编纂习惯法来保护当地的法律传统。

中世纪的习惯法编纂者,如 "诺曼底习惯法编纂者 "或 "巴黎习惯法编纂者",在记录和正式确定当地法律惯例方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些文本不仅是风俗习惯的汇编,也是将传统法律实践系统化和合理化的努力。虽然这些法典在某些方面受到罗马法的影响,但它们主要是为了记录和保存日耳曼习俗。在 1804 年《法国民法典》颁布之前,法国的法律二元结构一直存在,即罗马法在南部占主导地位,日耳曼习俗在北部占主导地位。民法典》被称为《拿破仑法典》,旨在通过整合两种法律传统的要素并使之合理化,从而统一法国的法律体系。这部法典的编纂标志着法国法律史上的一个关键时刻,为整个国家创建了一个统一的法律框架。

15 世纪 - 16 世纪[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

15 世纪和 16 世纪,法国在法律领域取得了重大发展:在宗主国的支持下起草地方习俗。这一过程是将法律和惯例系统化和正规化的广泛努力的一部分,而不同地区的法律和惯例差异很大。

在路易十一统治时期,以及后来的弗朗索瓦一世统治时期,王权开始着手汇编和编纂地方习俗。此举的动机是希望为法国支离破碎的法律体系带来一定程度的连贯性和统一性。每个地方或省份都被邀请制定自己的习俗,即以书面形式将传统上口头流传和非正式应用的法律和惯例正式化。在起草习俗的过程中,往往需要收集、审查和规范当地的法律惯例。这意味着,法国整个地区第一次有了描述其法律和法律程序的书面文件。然而,尽管这一举措在一定程度上促进了法律的组织化和明确化,但也使全国各地的法律保持了多样性,每个地区都保留了自己特定的习俗。

直到拿破仑-波拿巴于 1804 年颁布了《民法典》,一部统一的法律才适用于所有法国公民。民法典》又称《拿破仑法典》,它将法国法律合理化并统一起来,用一个统一的法律体系取代了多种地方习俗。民法典》是法律史上的一项重大成就,不仅对法国如此,对许多其他国家也是如此,因为它影响了全世界的法律发展。十五世纪和十六世纪,法国在王室的领导下,经历了习俗编纂的重要阶段,为后来 1804 年《民法典》统一和规范法国法律铺平了道路。

中世纪欧洲大学的出现标志着教会法和罗马法发展和传播的转折点,使其成为名副其实的 "博学之法"。这些教育机构在保存、研究和传播这些法律体系方面发挥了至关重要的作用,促进了它们的完善和发展。创建于十一世纪的博洛尼亚大学成为研究法律的主要中心,并因其教会法和罗马法的教学而声名远播。在许多方面,博洛尼亚都处于教会法全盛时期和罗马法在欧洲复兴的中心。就教会法而言,博洛尼亚大学是一个重要的研究和发展中心。教会法管理天主教会的内部事务,在这所大学得到了系统化和深入的教授。博洛尼亚的法学家和神学家为教会法的解释、发展和应用做出了贡献,影响了整个欧洲教会的实践和管理。

同时,博洛尼亚大学也是词汇学运动的发源地,该运动重新发现并评论了《民法大全》。这一运动标志着罗马法在西欧的复兴。通过缜密的分析和详细的评注,注释者们重振并澄清了罗马法,使其易于理解并适用于当代现实。因此,大学在将教会法和罗马法转化为学科,将其研究提升为法律科学方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些 "博学的法律 "不仅丰富了欧洲的法律知识,也为现代法律体系奠定了基础。这些法律学科在博洛尼亚大学达到顶峰,对意大利以外的法律思想和实践产生了深远的影响,并在未来几个世纪影响了欧洲法律的发展。

12 世纪中叶,教会法史上发生了一件大事,即 "格拉蒂安法令"(又称格拉蒂安敕令)的编纂。格拉蒂安是一位修道士和法学家,他承担了一项雄心勃勃的任务,即收集和整理所有现有的教会法,并将其汇编成一部单一的法典。格拉蒂安的法令整合了教皇法令、大公会议教规和教父著作等众多不同的教会法资料,标志着教会法的发展迈出了根本性的一步。在格拉蒂安完成这项工作之前,教会法分散在许多不同的文件中,使研究和应用变得复杂。格拉蒂安将所有这些资料汇集到一部系统的著作中,创造了一个宝贵的教学和法律工具。

格拉蒂安法令》很快成为欧洲各大学和教会法庭的参考书。它被广泛采用,成为教会内部的教学手册和法律实践指南。格拉蒂安的组织结构和调和矛盾文本的方法极大地促进了对教会法的理解,并有助于规范其应用。格拉蒂安的法令影响深远,成为天主教会法律体系的基础,直至二十世纪教会法的编纂。他的著作在塑造教会法传统方面发挥了至关重要的作用,并对整个法律的发展产生了重大影响。格拉蒂安法令》至今仍是教会法历史研究的基础性著作。

1582 年,"Corpus Juris Canonici"(《教会法典》)的出版是教会法历史上的一次重大发展。该书是一部详尽的教会法汇编,涵盖了从 "格拉蒂安法令 "到这一时期的文本和法令。教规汇编 "并不是简单地重印 "格拉蒂安法令",而是一个完整的汇编,其中包括该法令本身以及此后制定的许多其他教规法律渊源。该汇编包括格拉蒂安之后的教皇法令以及教会的其他重要文件和决定。教规汇编》的重要性在于它能够对天主教会的立法进行连贯而有条理的概述。通过将所有这些资料汇集成一个整体,《教会法典》为教会法的研究、教学和应用提供了便利。在反宗教改革时期,教会努力维护其权威并澄清其法律,这一点尤为重要。

教规汇编》的出版也对教会法的后续发展产生了重大影响。它提供了一个稳定而全面的法律参考资料,有助于规范天主教会内部的法律实践,并为随后的教会法改革和调整奠定了基础。直到二十世纪,代表教会法进一步编纂的 1917 年《教会法典》颁布之前,"Corpus Juris Canonici "一直是天主教会的标准教会法权威。

现代自然法学派[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

近代以来,随着自然法新概念的发展,法律思想发生了重大演变。这种法律方法不同于以往的概念,它认为法律是建立在人类本性和理性所固有的一套普遍基本原则之上的。根据这一观点,实在法,即社会制定和适用的法律,应直接源于这些自然法原则。这种对待自然法的新方法受到了托马斯-霍布斯、约翰-洛克以及后来的让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家的影响。这些思想家提出了这样的观点,即某些权利和原则是自然的、普遍的,如生命权、自由权和财产权。这些权利不是政府或机构赋予的,而是人类与生俱来的。

根据这一观点,实在法应是这些自然权利和原则的体现。换句话说,政府和机构制定的法律应与基本的自然权利和普遍正义原则保持一致,并从这些权利和原则中衍生出来。当实在法与这些自然原则相抵触时,就会被认为是不公正或不合法的。这种新的自然法概念对法律和法律理论的发展产生了深远的影响。特别是,它影响了人权理论的形成,并在现代民主宪法(如大革命后美国和法国的宪法)的概念化过程中发挥了关键作用。例如,1789 年的法国《人权和公民权利宣言》就清楚地反映了这些自然法思想的影响。

现代自然法学派兴盛于十七世纪和十八世纪之间,代表了一种哲学和法律方法,旨在根据源自人性和理性的原则建立法律和正义的基础。该学派的思想家们采用理性和批判的方法来探索和理解人类存在的基本方面,并从中推导出普遍的法律原则。现代自然法学派的作者,如雨果-格劳秀斯、托马斯-霍布斯、约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭,试图找出他们认为不言而喻或与生俱来的人性原则。这些原则被认为是所有其他法律规则的基础。例如,洛克关于个人拥有不可剥夺的生命权、自由权和财产权的概念就是这类基本原则的典型例子。这些思想家的方法是通过分析人类的状况--其需求、愿望和理性能力--作为确立基本权利和义务的基础。然后,这些自然权利义务将作为制定实在法(即社会和政府制定的法律)的基础。这种观点认为,法律和法律制度若要公正合法,就应反映这些自然原则。

这种方法标志着与以往法律概念的决裂,以往的法律概念往往更多地依赖于传统、权威或神的启示。它还有助于塑造现代民主的哲学基础,特别是在人权和治理方面。现代自然法学派的作者们在向更理性、更普遍的法律理解过渡的过程中发挥了关键作用。他们努力从对人性的研究中推导出法律原则,对当代世界法律和法律思想的发展产生了深远影响。

雨果-格劳秀斯,又名雨果-德-格鲁特,是现代自然法学派的核心人物,常被视为国际法之父。他对法理学最有名的贡献是其于 1625 年出版的著作《战争与和平法》(De Jure Belli ac Pacis)。这部论文成为国际法领域的奠基之作,对国际立法的发展产生了深远影响。在《战争与和平法》中,格劳秀斯探讨了自然法原则及其在战争与和平中的应用。他探讨了战争的正当原因、战争中的行为规则以及公正和平的基础等问题。格劳秀斯的主要贡献之一是,他认为某些法律和原则具有普遍性,适用于所有人,无论其所在国家的具体法律如何。这一思想为规范国家间关系的现代国际法概念奠定了基础。

格劳秀斯还在他的论文中定义了主权的概念。他认为,主权的特点是自主和独立:主权当局的行为不依赖于任何更高的权力,也不能被任何其他人类意志所废除。这一定义对国家理论和国家主权概念产生了重大影响,而国家主权是现代民族国家形成的关键概念。格劳秀斯的著作不仅奠定了国际法的基础,还影响了许多其他领域的政治和法律思想。他关于自然法、主权以及战争与和平法律的思想至今仍具有现实意义,并被法律、国际关系和政治哲学领域所研究。

国家在国际关系中应自我限制的理念是全球治理和国际法的基本原则。受雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)等思想家著作的影响,这一观点强调,尽管国家是主权实体,但它们也是受共同法律和规范制约的国际社会的成员。根据这一观点,各国在合作与互动中应遵守国际法框架,该框架限制各国为共同利益而采取的行动。这意味着承认并尊重某些规范国家在国际舞台上行为的规则和公约。这些规则可能涉及国际关系的各个方面,包括但不限于战争规则、条约、人权和国际贸易。

遵守国际法体系可以创造一个更可预测、更稳定的环境,使各国能够和平、建设性地互动。它还有助于预防冲突,以更文明、更公平的方式处理分歧。通过同意将自己限制在一个共同的法律框架内,各国认识到,在相互尊重与合作的背景下,自身的利益才能得到最好的维护。法治国际社会的理念在维护国际和平与安全的努力中发挥着至关重要的作用。它是许多国际机构(如联合国)和国际条约的核心,这些国际机构和条约旨在构建和规范国家间的互动,以促进集体福祉及和平解决冲突。

雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)的自然法概念的特点是坚持某些法律规范和原则的内在合理性和普遍性。在格劳秀斯看来,自然法与人的本性和理性能力密切相关。他认为,某些原则是如此根本,以至于它们得到了所有人类社会的认可,而与每个国家或社区制定的特定法律无关。格劳秀斯认为,自然法的力量在于它能够超越不同的地方法律和习俗。这种权利并不依赖于神的意志或任何其他外部权威,而是人类自身所固有的。格劳秀斯认为,即使是上帝也无法使本质上邪恶或违背人类本性和社会的东西成为善。换句话说,有些基本的道德和法律原则是不可剥夺和永恒不变的,即使是神的权威也是如此。

这一观点标志着法律思想的转折点,因为它将自然法确立为判断人类法律正义性与合法性的普遍参照基准。这种观点认为,自然法是评估实在法(由人类社会制定的法律)的道德性和有效性的标准。格劳秀斯的方法对法律和政治理论产生了深远的影响。它为后来人权和国际法理论的发展铺平了道路,强调某些权利和原则具有普遍性,必须得到所有社会和政府的尊重。这种观点影响了后来的思想家对基本权利和正义的理解,并一直是当代法律思想的基石。

雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)及其同时代的其他思想家提出的自然法概念基于这样一种思想,即自然法是一套普遍的、不变的原则,不依赖于神的意志或任何其他外部权威。在格劳秀斯看来,自然法与自然法则一样,是一种恒定不变的原则,它构成了一种更高的正义理想,适用于所有人,无论其文化、宗教或政治制度如何。从这个角度来看,自然法是永恒不变的,具有普遍性。它超越人类社会创造的实在法,是评估其公平性和合法性的参照。这种观点认为,某些真理和道德原则是人类与生俱来的,所有形式的治理和立法都必须尊重。

因此,格劳秀斯及其同时代的现代自然法学派确立了这样一种理念,即尽管人类法律可能因地而异,但存在着普遍适用的基本正义和道德原则。这些原则应指导法律的制定和适用,从而确保法律和政治制度服务于人类的根本利益,尊重个人不可剥夺的权利。自然法的这一概念对后来人权和国际法理论的发展产生了相当大的影响。它为主张普遍和不可剥夺的权利提供了哲学基础,并对《世界人权宣言》等文件的起草产生了重大影响。总之,格劳秀斯将自然法视为一套优越的、永恒不变的原则,这对塑造现代世界的伦理和法律框架至关重要。

Pacta sunt servanda"("条约必须遵守")原则的字面意思是 "协议必须得到尊重",它是自然法乃至现代国际法的重要基础之一。该原则规定,当事方之间真诚缔结的协议和条约必须按照其精神和文字得到遵守和执行。在格劳秀斯和其他自然法法学家的思想中,"条约必须遵守 "不仅仅是一项法律规则,它还代表了一项基本的道德原则,反映了人类关系中的可靠性和诚信。这一概念基于这样一种思想,即言词和承诺必须得到尊重,因为它们是任何社会中信任与合作的基础。这一原则在国际关系中至关重要,是制定和维护国际条约和协定的支柱。通过承认和执行 "条约必须遵守 "原则,国家和国际行为者承认所做的承诺必须得到遵守,从而建立了一个对国际合作至关重要的稳定和可预测性框架。条约必须遵守 "的重要性不仅限于国际法领域。它也适用于民法,是契约化和合同执行原则的基础。该原则确保合同各方受其协议的约束,并有义务遵守其合同承诺。

雨果-格劳秀斯(Hugo Grotius)通常被誉为最早提出自然法普遍原则的人之一,但将这些原则阐述为一个合理而自主的法律体系的,则是另一位杰出的自然法哲学家塞缪尔-普芬道夫(Samuel Pufendorf)。塞缪尔-普芬道夫生活在 17 世纪,对现代自然法理论做出了重大贡献。他提出了一种基于观察和理性演绎的法律体系,这一体系强调人类经验和理性在理解法律方面的重要性。普芬道夫的方法有别于他的前辈,他强调对自然法进行更多的经验分析,而不是神学分析。在普芬道夫看来,自然法不仅仅是一套普遍的道德原则,它还是一个逻辑连贯的体系,可以通过人类的理性来理解和应用。他的著作标志着他朝着更加世俗化和理性主义的自然法观点迈出了重要一步,摆脱了神学基础,而神学基础往往是早先关于这一主题讨论的特点。普芬道夫还强调了社会关系和社会性对理解自然法的重要性。他认为,人类本质上是社会性的动物,自然法必须考虑到人类生存的这一社会维度。他的著作强调需要规则和规范来调节人与人之间的互动,承认这些规则对于维护社会秩序和稳定至关重要。虽然格劳秀斯为现代自然法理论奠定了基础,但塞缪尔-普芬道夫则将这些思想发展成为一个理性和自主的法律体系。他的方法对自然法后来的发展产生了重大影响,并为现代法律和政治哲学的基础做出了贡献。

克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫(Christian Wolff)是十八世纪德国哲学家和法学家,是自然法学派的主要弟子,为这一理论的发展做出了重大贡献。沃尔夫受塞缪尔-普芬多夫著作的影响,以严谨的科学方法,通过逻辑和详细的演绎,深化了自然法的概念。沃尔夫研究自然法的方法是有条不紊和系统化的。他试图准确而全面地定义自然法的原则,运用科学推理的技巧建立一套连贯的法律规则。沃尔夫认为法律不仅是一套规范和规则,也是一个可以用人类理性来理解和解释的逻辑和科学体系。他将法律视为一个逻辑体系的观点对欧洲大陆的法律实践产生了重大影响。沃尔夫坚持法律和法律体系发展过程中的逻辑和秩序,促进了法律实践的正规化,鼓励以更有条理和系统的方法来适用和解释法律。沃尔夫的影响还延伸到了司法系统,他对基于基本秩序的逻辑演绎的强调,鼓励了一种更加严谨和有条不紊的法律方法。这使得法律纠纷的解决具有更高的可预测性和一致性,法律体系的结构也更加完善。克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫在自然法理论的发展过程中发挥了至关重要的作用,并极大地影响了人们理解和实践法律的方式,尤其是在欧洲大陆。他严谨的方法论和系统的方法在法律哲学和司法实践中留下了持久的印记。

让-雅克-卢梭和约翰-洛克等社会契约哲学家追随自然法学派的脚步,在现代政治和法律思想的发展中发挥了至关重要的作用。这些思想家提出了政府的合法性取决于个人自愿同意的观点。根据他们的观点,政治和政府结构必须建立在被统治者和统治者之间的相互协议之上。约翰-洛克(John Locke)尤其是这一观点的倡导者。洛克认为,只有当政府是个人自愿协议的产物时,它才是合法的。在他看来,人们同意政府是为了维护他们的自然权利,如生命权、自由权和财产权。这种同意不是对权利的让步,而是更好地保护权利的策略。洛克认为,政府的存在是为了服务于公民的利益,尤其是为了保护这些自然权利。让-雅克-卢梭也探讨了类似的主题,尽管他的方法在某些方面有所不同。卢梭在其著作《论社会契约论》中强调,普遍意志是政治合法性的基础。他认为,一个合法的政府应该反映社会的集体意志,而不是少数人的特殊利益。洛克和卢梭的理论对人权和民主概念的形成产生了深远的影响。他们关于社会契约的思想构成了现代人民主权和代议制政府概念的基础。这些理念被纳入现代民主国家的基本原则,并影响了美国《独立宣言》和法国《人权和公民权利宣言》等重要文件的起草。

在十八世纪大法典编纂之前,欧洲大陆的法律是各种法律制度和传统的混合体。这种复杂性反映了欧洲丰富多彩的历史,不同的法律影响随着时间的推移交织在一起。罗马帝国遗留下来的罗马法继续发挥着重要影响,尤其是在南欧国家。这部古代法律经过法律注释者和人文主义者的重新诠释,形成了许多法律体系的基础,尤其是在意大利。其详尽的原则和系统的方法在大陆民法的形成过程中发挥了关键作用。与此同时,管理天主教会事务的教会法也对欧洲大陆的法律产生了影响。通常与教会有联系的大学是研究和传播教会法的中心。这一法律体系对家庭法和继承法等领域产生了重大影响。在北欧和西欧,通常源于日耳曼传统的习惯法占主导地位。这些地方法律体系以祖先的习俗为基础,并逐渐在习惯法等文件中正式化。例如,法国的 "诺曼底法典"(Coutumier de Normandie)就是编纂地方法律和习俗的一个显著成果。

此外,以格老秀斯、普芬多夫和沃尔夫等思想家为代表的现代自然法学派为大陆法带来了新的内容。该学派提出了基于理性和人性的普遍法律原则的思想。他们的著作影响了法律思想,引入了更为抽象和普遍的概念,作为法律体系合理化的基础。这些不同的元素--罗马法、教会法、习惯法和现代自然法--共存于一种复杂的、有时甚至是相互矛盾的关系中,使得欧洲的法律格局尤为多样化。十八世纪的法典编纂,如著名的 1804 年《法国民法典》,试图统一这些不同的传统并使之系统化。这些法典编纂工作标志着欧洲大陆法律史上的一个重要阶段,它使法律体系合理化和现代化,使其更加连贯和易懂。

现代自然法学派对私法和公法发展的影响深深植根于个人平等原则。这一原则产生于对人的自然和不可剥夺的权利的思考,对法律制度和政府结构的形成产生了相当大的影响,尤其是从十八世纪开始。在私法领域,平等原则影响了法律在公民权利和交易方面对待个人的方式。平等原则对那些基于出身、社会地位或其他任意标准进行区分的法律惯例提出了挑战,并经常对其进行修改。这种做法促使人们更广泛地承认合同、财产权和其他私人法律关系中各方的平等。

在公法领域,平等原则产生了更为深远的影响,尤其是在现代宪法的制定过程中。美国 1776 年的《独立宣言》和法国 1789 年的《人权和公民权 利宣言》,前者提出了 "人人生而平等 "的著名论断,后者则宣布所有公民在法律面前一律平等。这些文件和类似的宪法文件将平等确立为法律和政治秩序的基本原则。它们为废除不平等的法律和社会结构(如欧洲的封建主义和农奴制)奠定了基础,并为打击现代社会中的歧视和不公正现象提供了框架。因此,由现代自然法学派发展起来的平等原则在向更加民主和平等的社会过渡的过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。它不仅影响了法律和政治理论,也影响了治理和立法的具体实践,帮助塑造了现代民主的发展和全世界对人权的尊重。

几个世纪以来,日内瓦一直是欧洲法律体系演变和互动的精彩缩影。在大法典实现法律标准化之前,这座城市见证了多种法律体系和传统的复杂共存。

罗马法源远流长,影响广泛,在日内瓦的许多领域都得到了应用,尤其是民法领域。其有关财产、合同和继承的复杂原则和规则是法律体系的基本支柱。罗马法的深刻性和复杂性使其特别适合于规范像日内瓦这样的城市和商业社会的法律事务。与此同时,在建筑等具体方面,日内瓦参考了《巴黎习惯》。这一习俗是法国最重要的习俗之一,它提供了一套管理特定领域的规则和惯例,展示了地方法律如何通过提供适合社区特定需求的解决方案来补充罗马法。在新教改革之前,教会法在日内瓦也发挥了重要作用。这一法律体系不仅管理宗教事务,还管理婚姻等民事生活的某些方面,对该市的立法和社会实践产生了重大影响。

随着现代自然法学派的出现和发展,新的原则开始渗透到日内瓦的法律体系中。格劳秀斯、普芬多夫和沃尔夫等思想家倡导的普遍自然权利、人民主权和社会契约等思想在日内瓦引起了特别的反响,尤其是在宗教改革之后。这些概念逐渐影响了法律和政治实践,引入了不可剥夺的权利和个人自治的概念。因此,日内瓦的法律史是不同法律影响--罗马法、巴黎风俗、教会法和现代自然法思想--如何共存和互动的精彩范例。这种共存形成了独特的法律景观,反映了欧洲法律发展的多样性和动态性。

欧洲,尤其是日内瓦的法律发展并不局限于罗马法、教会法、习惯法和现代自然法学派思想的影响。另一个需要考虑的关键因素是国家法,它因地区和政治结构的不同而采取不同的形式。例如,在神圣罗马帝国,国内法由帝国法律组成。这些法律由皇帝和帝国机构颁布,其适用范围遍及帝国的各个领土。它们构成了额外的立法层,通常与地方和区域法律体系共存。在日内瓦,国家法律的形式是日内瓦君主通过的法规。这些法规是日内瓦城邦特有的法律,反映了其特殊的政治、社会和经济特征。这些地方法规的制定是日内瓦自治和管理的一个重要方面,尤其是在日内瓦摆脱萨瓦公国的统治并与瑞士各州结盟之后。

在瑞士各州,国家法律以法规和通过的宪章为代表。每个州都有自己的法律和法规来管理当地事务。这些文件往往是不同社会和政治团体之间长期传统和协商的结果,对于维护各州的秩序和社会组织至关重要。这些不同形式的国家法律,无论是神圣罗马帝国的帝国法律、日内瓦法规还是瑞士各州的规章制度,都表明了法律是如何演变并适应各地区特定的政治和社会现实的。它们与其他层次的法律--罗马法、教会法、习惯法和自然法--相互补充、相互作用,形成了一个复杂、多层次的法律体系,这也是十九世纪大法典编纂之前欧洲的特点。

十八世纪末和十九世纪初,欧洲掀起了一场前所未有的法律编纂运动,这场运动主要受到现代自然法学派思想的影响。这场运动旨在通过清晰易懂的书面法典,简化、系统化和统一现有的各种法律和法律惯例。最早的编纂工作是在德国进行的,反映了根据自然法原则使法律合理化的趋势。例如,奥地利是最早采用这种方法的国家之一,1811 年颁布了《民法典》以规范民事问题,1786 年制定了《刑法典》,1788 年制定了《刑事诉讼法典》。这些法典代表了法律制度的重大现代化,摒弃了传统的异质规范。普鲁士也没有置身事外,制定了自己的法典,并于 1894 年定稿。普鲁士法典》是一项雄心勃勃的计划,旨在统一国家内部的法律并使之合理化,表明了对建立一个更有组织、更连贯的法律体系的承诺。在法国,法典编纂运动以 1804 年颁布《民法典》(俗称《拿破仑法典》)而达到高潮。这部法典深刻地改变了法国的民法,为公民权利、财产和家庭制定了明确的规则。法国民法典》受到许多其他国家的推崇,并以各种形式被采纳,成为全球法律发展的典范。除《民法典》外,法国还于 1791 年颁布了《刑法典》,1807 年颁布了《商法典》,巩固了其他重要领域的立法。

这些法典编纂举措标志着与以往法律实践的重大突破。这些改革用统一的法典取代了复杂的地方法律和习惯法,使公民更容易理解和使用法律,同时确保法律适用的一致性和逻辑性。这些法典并不是对现有法律的简单汇编,而是基于明确性、逻辑性和普遍性原则对立法进行的根本性重组,在法律实践中体现了自然法思想,并在法律领域留下了持久的遗产。

当代法典所体现的现代编纂理念与早期的法律编纂和组织方法有很大不同。这种现代法律编纂方法基于几项基本原则,反映了一种系统化和合理化的法律观。首先,现代法典的特点是制定一般性的抽象规则。与现有法律和习惯的简单汇编不同,现代法典旨在制定可适用于各种情况的普遍原则。这种概括和抽象的方法使法律具有更大的灵活性和适应性,同时确保法律适用的统一性和可预见性。其次,这些法律规则按照系统的计划进行组织,通常分为不同的主题。这种按主题或法律领域编排的方式更便于查找和理解法律条文。法典的每一条或每一节都涉及法律的一个具体方面,使其更易于浏览和解释。

此外,法典作为一个整体,构成了一个连贯的体系。各种规则和条款被设计为和谐地组合在一起,形成一个连贯和合乎逻辑的整体。这种系统的连贯性对于确保法典不仅易于理解,而且在逻辑上前后一致至关重要。最后,法典是主权当局正式颁布的结果,适用于其管辖范围内的所有居民。这种正式颁布赋予法典以法律权威和合法性,确保其作为主要法律渊源得到认可和尊重。法典对所有居民的普遍适用也确保了法律平等、公正地适用于整个社会。现代法典代表了一种结构化和系统化的法律方法,反映了人们希望以一种合乎逻辑、易于理解和普遍适用的方式组织法律规则。这种编纂方法极大地影响了当代社会对法律的理解和应用,促进了更有序、更高效的法律体系的发展。

自十八世纪末以来,法典的演变代表了塑造欧洲法律的四大法律传统的显著融合与综合: 罗马法、日耳曼法、教会法和现代自然法学派的学说。罗马法历史悠久,阐述详尽,为现代法典提供了坚实的结构和概念基础,尤其是在民法领域。其关于合同、财产和民事责任的原则在新的法典中得到了整合和调整。日耳曼法影响了北欧和西欧的法律体系,并在习惯法和地方惯例方面做出了贡献。这些因素通过纳入更适合不同地区具体现实和传统的法律内容而丰富了法典。教会法在家庭法和继承法领域具有重要影响。虽然随着法律制度的世俗化,它的作用有所减弱,但其中的一些原则和方法在新的法典中得到了保留和体现。最后,现代自然法学派的学说在引入普遍权利、法律面前人人平等和人民主权等概念方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些思想对宪法和公法的发展以及人权和公民权的概念产生了深远的影响。因此,这些出现于十八世纪末和十九世纪初的法典代表了为巩固和统一法律所做的卓越努力。它们成功地协调了不同的法律传统并使之系统化,使其易于理解并适用于现代社会。这些法典编纂标志着法律史上的一个转折点,奠定了继续指导当代法律体系的法律基础。

瑞士的民事立法于 1912 年通过了《民法典》和《义务法典》,是各种历史法律传统的杰出融合,反映了欧洲法律遗产的多样性和丰富性。这些法典并不是对现有法律的简单汇编,而是经过深思熟虑,综合了欧洲最重要的法律影响的结果。日耳曼传统以强调地方和区域习俗而著称,在瑞士法律的发展中发挥了重要作用,尤其是在家庭法、继承法和物权方面。例如,在家庭法和继承法中,有一些内容反映了从这一传统中继承下来的当地价值观和习俗。同样,教会法因其在天主教会内管理家庭和婚姻事务的历史,也对《瑞士民法典》中的这些领域产生了影响。虽然瑞士采用了现代世俗的方法,但教会法在家庭关系方面的遗产仍然清晰可见。罗马法中关于财产权和义务的复杂概念也在瑞士法律中留下了印记。例如,《义务法典》就体现了罗马法方法和原则的影响,尤其是在处理合同和民事责任方面。倡导基本权利和平等等原则的现代自然法学派也影响了瑞士的民事立法。这些普遍原则已成为瑞士法律的重要组成部分,影响着瑞士的立法、宪法和整体法律框架。最后,克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫注重法律系统化和逻辑性的方法论对瑞士法律的编纂方式产生了影响。这种影响体现在瑞士法典有组织、有系统的结构中,反映了一种连贯有序的法律观。瑞士的民事立法,包括民法典和义务法典,成功地融合了日耳曼、教会和罗马的法律传统,以及现代自然法思想和克里斯蒂安-沃尔夫(Christian Wolff)的系统思想。这种传统和影响的融合使瑞士的法律体系不仅植根于历史,而且适应当代瑞士社会的要求和价值观。

普通法和衡平法规则[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

普通法[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

普通法是一种起源于英国的法律制度,有别于欧洲大陆盛行的以民法为基础的法律制度。普通法是盎格鲁-撒克逊国家的特色,包括英国(苏格兰除外,苏格兰实行混合制)、美国(路易斯安那州除外)、加拿大(魁北克除外)、澳大利亚、新西兰和其他前英国殖民地。这种体系以判例法(即法院和法庭的裁决)为基础,而不是以成文法典或正式的立法法规为基础。在英美法系中,司法先例(以前案件的判决)对决定未来案件的结果起着至关重要的作用。法官通过解释立法和确立先例来指导未来的判决,在法律的形成过程中发挥着积极作用。

相比之下,欧洲大陆主要遵循由罗马法发展而来的大陆法系。这种法律体系的特点是拥有涵盖民法、商法和刑法等广泛法律领域的综合性法典。民法强调成文的法规和法典,法官的主要职责是始终如一地适用这些法规,而不是通过判决创造法律。因此,尽管普通法和民法共享某些法律原则和概念,但它们在方法和手段上却有着本质的区别。普通法深深植根于盎格鲁-撒克逊国家的法律传统和实践,并没有直接影响到遵循大陆法系传统的欧洲大陆的法律体系。

英格兰在第一个千年的法律史上,由于其罗马帝国的成员身份以及随后的日耳曼人入侵,发生了一系列重大变革。罗马人在五世纪初撤出后,英格兰遭到日耳曼人的入侵,主要是撒克逊人、盎格鲁人和朱特人。这些入侵对后来英格兰的社会、文化和法律结构产生了深远的影响。这些入侵之后在不列颠群岛发展起来的王国具有日耳曼习俗和风俗的特点。这些日耳曼人在英格兰定居后,带来了他们自己的法律体系,这些体系主要以口头习俗为基础。随着时间的推移,特别是随着王国的巩固,人们开始努力将这些习俗写成文字。用日耳曼人自己的语言记载日耳曼习俗是英格兰法律发展的重要一步。这些书面文件是后来英国普通法的基础。这些早期的法律虽然按照现代标准来看很简陋,但对于建立法律和社会秩序至关重要。这些成文习俗反映了当时日耳曼社会的价值观和习俗,强调赔偿(对错误或损害的补偿)等概念以及社区和家庭关系在解决纠纷中的重要性。一千年前的英格兰受到罗马历史和入侵民族的日耳曼传统的影响,出现了影响后来英国法律发展的法律体系。日耳曼习俗的记载是这一过程中的重要里程碑,为后来的普通法法律体系奠定了基础。

英国军队在黑斯廷斯战役中抵挡住了诺曼骑兵的冲锋。

1066 年,诺曼底公爵征服者威廉入侵英格兰,并在黑斯廷斯战役中取得胜利,这标志着英国历史的转折点,包括在法律领域。征服之后,威廉采取了几项重要措施来巩固自己的权力,同时努力保持现有社会和法律结构的某种连续性。其中一项措施就是宣布维持在他征服英国之前一直有效的日耳曼法律。这种法律是由撒克逊人、盎格鲁人和朱特人等日耳曼民族的习俗演变而来,构成了盎格鲁-撒克逊王国法律体系的基础。威廉选择保留这一法律体系,从而确保了一定的连续性和稳定性,这对于高效管理王国和维护社会和平至关重要。威廉还保留了现有的法院。这些法院负责按照当地习俗执行司法,在诺曼统治下继续运作。这一决定使得在逐渐融合诺曼影响的同时保留现有法律秩序成为可能。然而,尽管威廉保留了现有的法律框架,但他也做出了重大改变,影响了英国法律体系未来的发展。例如,封建保有权的引入改变了土地所有权的结构,并产生了深远的法律影响。此外,诺曼人的影响逐渐体现在王权的集中和英国法律的发展上。征服者威廉于 1066 年征服英格兰是英国法律史上的一个关键时刻。虽然他保留了现有的日耳曼法律体系和法院,但在随后的时期里,诺曼人的影响逐渐融入了英国法律体系,并经历了一个中央集权和演变的过程,最终导致了普通法体系的发展。

征服者威廉(William the Conqueror)于 1066 年征服英格兰,在保留现有法律体系某些方面的同时,对王国的司法组织进行了重大改革。威廉采取了双管齐下的方法,既保留了日耳曼法律传统,又引入了新的司法结构。一方面,威廉尊重现有的日耳曼法律,保留了地方法院,这有助于征服后法律体系的连续性和稳定性。这些地方法院继续适用习惯法,而习惯法植根于诺曼征服前定居英格兰的日耳曼人的传统和习俗。另一方面,威廉在英格兰不同地区设立了新的法院,并让诺曼领主担任法院院长。这些新的司法机构通常被称为郡法院,旨在加强诺曼人对国家的控制,并将被征服的领土纳入王室领地。这些领地法院虽然继续适用习惯法,但逐渐开始取代旧的司法机构。

从 12 世纪开始,王权对司法系统的影响日益增强。英格兰国王开始定期派遣代表(通常称为巡回法官)出席王国各地的审判。这些王室代表的作用是确保按照王国的法律和习俗伸张正义。他们的存在还有助于维护王室权威和集中控制司法行政。这一发展对英国法律制度的演变产生了重要影响。巡回法官的存在促进了整个王国法律实践的标准化,并为普通法体系的出现铺平了道路。这种以判例法和司法判决为基础的体系成为英国法律的一大特色,与欧洲大陆盛行的成文民法形成鲜明对比。

诺曼征服后,英国引入巡回法官,这是英国法律制度发展的重要一步,受到许多人的欢迎。这些法官由国王派遣,在王国各地巡回,在各个地方法院开庭审理案件。他们的存在旨在确保司法公正,并符合王国的法律和习俗。巡回法官的主要优势之一是他们的公正性。与地方法院不同,巡回法官的判决可能会受到地方利益或地方贵族压力的影响,而巡回法官则被认为凌驾于地方争吵和影响之上。由于与王室直接相关,他们被视为更加中立和独立,能够做出更加公正和平衡的判决。

这种公正和公平的观念有助于增强人们对司法系统的信心,并提高人们对王室司法权威的尊重。巡回法官在营造法律统一感和规范英格兰法律实践方面发挥了关键作用。他们的工作还促进了普通法的形成,因为他们的判决和他们确立的先例构成了判例法的基础,而判例法正是普通法体系的基础。巡回法官是中世纪英格兰的一项重大司法创新。他们不仅有助于巩固王室在司法领域的权威,还为发展更加统一和公平的法律制度奠定了基础,这些特点成为普通法体系的基石。

诺曼征服后,英格兰司法的变革逐渐促成了更加集中统一的司法体系的建立,特别是在威斯敏斯特建立了常设法院。这一发展标志着普通法法律体系形成的关键阶段。司法机构最初与国王的法院联系在一起,后来逐渐开始脱离这一直接影响。巡回法官最初是国王的代表,他们奔走于王国的各个角落伸张正义,最终永久居住在威斯敏斯特。这种集中化的做法使人们能够更系统地讨论和分析各地的风俗习惯以及王国各地各种审判中做出的裁决。通过在威斯敏斯特举行会议,这些法官能够比较和评估英格兰各地区的不同做法和刑罚。通过这一过程,他们可以找出最佳解决方案,并否决那些被认为毫无根据或不恰当的方案。因此,法官们在统一和规范英国普通法方面发挥了至关重要的作用。

这些法官在威斯敏斯特的工作也有助于形成一套连贯的判例法。他们的判决所确立的先例成为未来案件的基准,为普通法体系奠定了基础。这一体系所依据的原则是,以前的司法判决应指导类似案件的判决,从而确保法律适用的某种一致性和可预见性。威斯敏斯特向中央集权司法体系的转变以及一整套判例法的形成标志着英国法律史上的一个转折点。与欧洲大陆盛行的以成文法典为基础的大陆法系不同,英国的法律体系主要以法官判决和司法判例为基础。

英国(尤其是威斯敏斯特)法学的发展以逐渐采用 "stare decisis "原则为标志,"stare decisis "是一个拉丁文概念,意为 "坚持已作出的判决"。这一原则成为普通法体系的基本支柱,强调了尊重先前司法判决的重要性。遵循判决 "原则意味着法官在处理类似案件时必须尊重以往司法判决所确立的先例。换言之,法律问题一旦在某一特定案件中得到裁决,该裁决即成为今后涉及类似事实或法律问题的案件的参照点。这种对先前判决的尊重确保了法律适用的某种一致性和可预见性,因为争议所涉各方和整个社会都可以期待类似案件以类似方式得到解决。对以前判决的事项采取这种态度对英国法律制度产生了几个重要影响。首先,它加强了司法判决的权威性,将法院判决确立为主要的法律渊源。其次,它鼓励形成一整套连贯的判例法,使法官和律师能够依靠确立已久的先例来指导他们的论证和裁决。最后,它促进了英国法律的稳定性和统一性。英国的普通法体系并非完全依赖成文法规或法典,而是主要通过司法判决和解释发展而来。这一体系以先例和判例法为核心,与欧洲大陆的大陆法系形成鲜明对比,后者的法律主要以成文法典为基础。

13 世纪是英国建立普通法的关键时期。正是在这一世纪,法律体系开始定型,这尤其要归功于王室法官循序渐进的谨慎行动。这一时期形成了一整套连贯的法律原则和惯例,成为英国法律的基础。普通法发展的一个重要方面是皇家法官扩大皇家法院管辖权的方式。这种做法是谨慎而渐进的,部分是为了适应现有的属地法院。王室当局意识到了与地方和领地法律体系之间潜在的紧张关系,过快地扩大王室法院可能会引起抵制甚至反抗。王室法院与领地法院和地方法院并行发展,为诉讼当事人提供了另一种选择。随着时间的推移,这些皇家法院的威望和权威不断提高,主要是因为它们被认为是公正的,而且在适用法律方面更加统一和一致。皇家法院管辖权的逐步扩大也有助于发展和巩固普通法的原则。皇家法官在其判决中根据先例制定了一整套法律规则和原则。这些先例成为普通法的基石,形成了一套判例法,至今仍指导着司法判决。

为了巩固国王在整个王国的权力和权威,英格兰的皇家司法系统围绕三个关键领域展开,每个领域由一个特定的法院管理。这种结构反映了国王需要对王国的重要方面进行有效而直接的控制。首先,财政法院在管理王室财政方面发挥着核心作用。该法院负责征收和管理国王的税收等收入。在财政资源对维持秩序和保卫王国至关重要的时期,财政法院在确保国家财政稳定方面发挥着至关重要的作用。因此,它是王国经济管理和王权投射的支柱。其次,普通法院处理土地所有权问题。在封建社会,土地是财富和地位的主要来源,因此对土地权的控制和管理至关重要。该法院负责处理土地纠纷、继承问题和产权问题。它在王国的社会和经济结构中发挥着决定性作用,调节着领主、诸侯和农民之间的关系。第三,国王法庭专门审理重大刑事案件,尤其是影响国家安全的案件。该法院负责处理重大犯罪和危及王国稳定与安全的案件。它的职责是维护公共秩序和保护王权,确保危害国家的罪行得到应有的审判和惩罚。通过分别管理财政、土地所有权和国家安全,这三个专门法院使英国国王能够在政府和社会的重要领域行使权力。它们促进了王权的集中,在英国政府和法律制度的演变过程中发挥了关键作用,证明了有组织、有效的司法系统对王国治理的重要性。

英格兰国王在位期间,为了维护自己的权力和增加收入,试图将其管辖范围扩大到由专门的皇家法院管理的三大领域之外。这种扩大王室管辖范围的做法常常得到民众的支持,他们有时认为王室法院比领主法院或地方法院更公平,更不受地方影响。通过扩大管辖权,国王能够干预更多的法律事务,这不仅加强了他在整个王国的权威,也有助于增加王室的收入。司法费用、罚金和其他形式的审判收入增加了王室的财政收入,这对国家的维持和扩张至关重要。为了有效执行王室法院的判决,王室司法机构设有王室官员。这些官员负责执行司法判决,包括在必要时使用武力。他们的存在和活动证明了王室司法的范围和有效性,确保法院判决在整个王国得到尊重和执行。这种扩大王室管辖权的过程对英格兰的中央集权和确立国王作为最高司法来源的权威起到了至关重要的作用。与此同时,它还有助于形成一个更加统一和连贯的法律体系,王室司法起到了制衡地方和宗主国影响的作用,并为解决争端提供了一个更加公平和统一的框架。

英国威斯敏斯特皇家法院制定了诉讼当事人向这些法院提起诉讼的具体程序,这极大地促进了皇家法院管辖权范围的发展和扩大。这些程序在使人们能够诉诸皇家司法以及维护国王对司法系统的权威方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些程序被称为令状,是以国王的名义发布的书面命令。它们允许个人就各种法律事务向皇家法院提起诉讼。从本质上讲,令状是诉讼当事人和皇家法院之间的桥梁,为他们提供了寻求皇家司法干预的正式途径。

令状的使用将皇家司法的触角延伸到了金融、土地所有权和针对国家的刑事案件等原有领域之外。随着时间的推移,令状成为越来越复杂的工具,使皇家法院能够处理更广泛的纠纷,包括在世袭领地或地方管辖范围内出现的纠纷。更多的人可以诉诸王室法院,这也加强了在国王权威下更加统一和公正的司法意识。王国的臣民可以向被认为更加中立、受地方或领地利益影响较小的法院提起上诉。这有助于增强人们对王室司法的信心,加强王室司法权威的合法性。

令状在英国法律体系中的作用,尤其是在威斯敏斯特皇家法院的背景下,对于处理和解决争端的方式至关重要。令状是以国王名义签发的官方文件,授权个人将案件提交皇家法院审理。这一机制对于保证诉诸王室司法和维护国王在解决争端中的权威至关重要。在纠纷中,如果原告想要获得赔偿,找到适用于相关案件的令状至关重要。如果有合适的令状,就意味着案件可以由王室法庭审理。由于令状代表着国王的权威和意志,因此在纠纷中无法获得清偿可被视为对王室命令的一种违抗。另一方面,纠纷中的被告也有机会到王室法庭解释为什么他认为不应该遵守他收到的禁令。这一程序为双方提供了一个机会,让他们在一个中立且受尊重的司法机构面前陈述案情,远离地方或领地的影响。令状的使用导致了一系列王室法院的发展,这往往不利于领地法院的发展。事实上,王室法院的吸引力在于它们被认为是公正的,能够根据统一和一致的原则伸张正义。这一发展逐渐削弱了领地法院和地方法院的作用和影响力,将司法权力集中在国王的直接控制之下。

英格兰的令状制度最初是处理具体法律案件的个性化方式,后来逐渐演变为使用定型公式。负责签发令状的大法官开始例行签发令状并收取费用,而不对每个案件进行彻底审查。这种做法使诉诸皇家司法变得更容易、更直接,吸引了大量纠纷诉诸皇家法院。这一发展带来了几个重要的后果。一方面,它改善了王室的财政状况,因为签发令状成为了一项重要的收入来源。另一方面,这种做法引起了男爵和封建领主的反对,他们开始放弃自己的宗主法庭,转而使用王室法庭。在男爵们看来,这种发展不仅使他们丧失了法律影响力,也削弱了他们的权力和收入。

历来在地方司法中发挥关键作用的领地司法开始反对大法官的做法。领主们反对大法官就传统上不属于王室管辖范围的事务签发令状,例如不属于王室财政、土地所有权和针对国家的刑事案件范畴的纠纷。宗主权司法利益与王室司法利益之间的冲突是英国法律制度演变的一个重要方面。它反映了王权集权与维护地方权力和特权之间的矛盾。通过系统地使用令状,扩大了皇家法院的管辖权,这是普通法体系形成的一个关键因素,其特点是司法体系更加集中和统一。

在英格兰,王室法院与领地法院之间的利益冲突导致了《威斯敏斯特法规》的妥协。该法规于 13 世纪通过,旨在平衡国王和封建领主的利益,同时确保法律体系的顺利运行。根据《威斯敏斯特法规》,大法官制定新令状的能力受到限制。这意味着大法官不能再通过为每一种新的法律情况发明新的令状来任意扩大皇家法院的管辖权。这一限制旨在通过防止皇家司法权的过度扩张来保护传统司法权,尤其是封建领主的司法权。

不过,大法官有权就与现有案件类似的案件签发令状。这一规定允许在一定程度上灵活运用令状,授权在现有公式未明确涵盖但被认为足够相似的法律情况下使用令状。此外,相似性原则被用于将许多案件纳入现有令状。该原则允许法官将现有令状适用于不完全相同但足够相似的案件。这种方法允许令状制度有一定程度的灵活性和适应性,同时又不违反《威斯敏斯特成文法》建立的框架。因此,《威斯敏斯特成文法》在王权下的司法中央集权与保留地方和世袭司法权之间取得平衡方面发挥了至关重要的作用。它有助于稳定英国的法律体系,并将普通法确立为一个连贯的法律体系,同时尊重封建领主的权利和管辖权。

英格兰普通法的发展在很大程度上基于令状制度。该制度起源于诺曼时期,在中世纪不断演变,在维护和扩大皇家法院管辖权方面发挥了核心作用。在普通法中,提起诉讼的程序涉及找到适用于具体情况的令状。令状是以国王的名义签发的书面命令,使人们可以就各种纠纷诉诸王室法院。这种方法使司法请求标准化和正规化,从而方便了人们诉诸皇家司法。在中世纪,王室法院逐渐获得了更广泛的管辖权,最终成为王国的主要司法机构。它们处理的案件范围很广,从财产和合同问题到刑事案件。这种在王权下的司法集中化有助于法律的标准化和判例法的统一。在王室法院发展的同时,教会法院也在继续行使其管辖权,尽管规模较为有限。这些法院在教会的领导下,主要管辖与婚姻、遗嘱(只要涉及属灵事务)和教会人员有关的事务。虽然范围有限,但教会法院在其管辖范围内继续发挥着重要作用。

英国普通法的发展深受威斯敏斯特皇家法院法官实践的影响,他们在这一法律体系的创立和发展中发挥了关键作用。伴随着这一发展,世袭制法院逐渐衰落,这主要是由于皇家法院通过 "同类案件 "或相似性实践扩大了管辖权。欧洲大陆的法官通常受过大学教育,具有法律方面的学术背景,而英格兰的法官则不同,他们一般都是经过实地培训的从业人员。他们没有正规的法律学术背景,而是通过诉讼实践接受培训。这种实用的法律培训方式对普通法的性质和演变产生了重大影响。威斯敏斯特皇家法院的法官作为实践者,非常重视司法先例。他们依靠以前案件的判决来指导当前案件的判决。这种先例惯例对普通法的发展至关重要,因为它创造了一套连贯的判例法。过去的判决构成了法官解决新争议的基础,确保了法律适用的可预测性和一致性。这种以先例和法官的实践经验为基础的法律发展方法与大陆的大陆法系形成了鲜明的对比,后者的法律主要以成文法典和正式的法律理论为基础。在英国,普通法通过判例法有机地发展起来,反映了一种更加务实和适应性更强的司法方式。

作为一种法律体系,普通法在很大程度上依赖于先例原则和司法判例的使用。这一显著特点使其成为一种过去的法院判决在解决当前争端中发挥核心作用的体系。在英美法系中,律师提醒法庭注意以前类似判决的能力是辩护的有力工具。如果律师能证明法院以前判决的案件与当前争议有重大相似之处,那么他或她就能处于有利地位,影响判决。这种做法所依据的原则是,法院应遵循过去类似案件的判决,从而确保法律适用的一致性和可预见性。

因此,普通法系中法官的职责是根据司法先例所确立的规则和原则来判决案件。与大陆法系法官主要参考成文法典不同,在英美法系,法官在很大程度上依赖于以往对法律的解释和应用。这种判决方法不仅确保法律的适用前后一致,而且还能通过连续的司法判决不断发展。因此,普通法本质上是法官制定的法律,是在法院判决的基础上构建和发展起来的。这使其有别于其他法律体系,并使其具有随时间演变和调整的独特活力。

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14 世纪和 15 世纪期间,普通法虽然在英国建立了坚实的法律框架,但也开始显示出其局限性,特别是由于社会和经济的快速发展。新类型的纠纷和复杂的情况不断出现,现有的普通法框架难以充分解决这些问题。在这种情况下,人们开始寻求传统普通法体系之外的其他解决方案。面对这些挑战,诉讼当事人将国王视为 "正义之泉"。他们向王室法庭提出上诉,强调其案件的特殊性,希望获得更灵活的、适合其具体需求的司法。这种做法基于这样一种理念,即国王作为君主,拥有伸张正义的最终权力,可以在普通法律不充分或不适当的情况下进行干预。

这一趋势加强了大法官法庭的作用。最初,大法官法庭负责管理国王的行政事务,但后来逐渐演变成了一个司法法庭。大法官代表国王,开始运用衡平法原则处理普通法法院无法充分解决的案件。因此,大法官法院填补了普通法的空白,处理需要更细致、更灵活方法的案件。有别于普通法的严格规则,衡平法的概念使大法官能够针对特定情况提供更公平的解决方案。

在英国法律体系中使用衡平法是为了应对普通法的局限性,尤其是其程序上的僵化。普通法偏重于既定的规则和程序,而衡平法则提供了一种以个案公正为基础的更为灵活的方法。大法官法庭代表国王行事,在衡平法的应用中发挥着核心作用。在伸张正义时,大法官并不像普通法那样严格依据法律,而是依据自己的良知和公平原则。这种方法可以考虑案件的道德和伦理方面,从而提供更公平、更平衡的解决方案,尤其是在严格适用普通法可能导致不公正结果的情况下。

衡平法的主要优势之一是能够克服普通法的缺陷和僵化,尤其是在形式缺陷方面。在普通法体系下,即使原告的主张在实质上成立,诉讼也往往会因简单的程序错误而失败。而衡平法则可以克服这些形式上的障碍,专注于案件的是非曲直。因此,普通法与衡平法的区别导致英国法律中出现了两种平行但互补的体系。普通法强调传统、一致性和先例,而衡平法则注重个人正义和灵活性。这种二元性使英国法律体系能够更全面、更细致地应对不同的法律需求和情况,从而提高司法的整体效率。

英国大法官法庭适用的衡平法程序,并不是为了弥补普通法的缺陷,而是作为一种补充,提供更灵活的工具,更适合某些法律情况。随着时间的推移,这种独特的司法方式越来越受欢迎,因为它能够提供比普通法更公平、更个性化的解决方案。衡平法通过关注每个案件的具体需求和独特情况,能够解决普通法体系可能处理不当或无法解决的纠纷。例如,衡平法可以提供禁令、信托和特定法令等普通法所不具备的补救措施。

大法官法庭和衡平法院越来越受欢迎,导致向其提起的诉讼数量增加。这主要是由于人们认为衡平法提供了更公平的司法,更关注每个案件的细节。然而,这一趋势与普通法法官之间的关系有些紧张。普通法法院的部分案件被移交给了大法官法院,收入和影响力都有所下降。普通法与衡平法之间的冲突揭示了每种制度的局限性和挑战,同时也凸显了采用更加综合的司法方法的必要性。随着时间的推移,衡平法原则逐渐被纳入普通法律体系,从而使两种方法更加协调。这种融合最终形成了一个更全面、更细致的法律体系,能够更充分地应对法律需求的多样性。

在英格兰,普通法与衡平法之间的关系经历了一段冲突时期,但同时也在寻求妥协与协调。普通法法官和衡平法法官之间的冲突是由他们在法律方式和方法上的根本差异所导致的。冲突的核心问题是,如果普通法法院的判决与适用衡平法原则的大法官法院的判决出现分歧,应以哪种制度为准。最后的决定是,如果两者发生冲突,应以衡平法为准。这一决定反映了人们承认衡平法是纠正普通法潜在的僵化和不公正的一种手段。

然而,两种制度的最终解决和统一要等到十八世纪。当时,包括威斯敏斯特法院(代表普通法)和大法官法院(适用衡平法)在内的各皇家法院合并为一个高级法院。这一合并使两种法律渊源得以无差别地共同使用,从而将普通法的严谨性和可预见性与衡平法的灵活性和个性化司法结合起来。在这一统一的体系中,当普通法与衡平法发生冲突时,衡平法的优先地位得以保持。在发生冲突时,衡平法优先于普通法,这确保了最终裁决的公正和平衡,同时考虑到每个案件的特殊方面。

大陆法系和英国法系的区别在于编纂法律的方法不同。受启蒙运动和法国大革命的影响,欧洲大陆国家将编纂作为使其法律系统化和合理化的一种手段,而英国则坚持以判例法为基础的普通法体系。在欧洲大陆法系中,编纂被视为使法律现代化的一种方式,使法律更易于为公民所理解和使用。法典,如法国著名的《拿破仑法典》,试图将法律规则汇集成一个有组织、有系统的整体,体现启蒙运动关于理性和普遍性的理想。这些法典编纂工作标志着一个重要的转折点,为采用这些法典的国家建立了明确统一的法律基础。

相比之下,在英国,欧洲大陆所理解的编纂概念几乎无人知晓。英国的法律体系仍然在很大程度上依赖于普通法和衡平法原则。英国法律没有成文法典,而是通过长期流传下来的司法判决发展起来的。英国律师经常提到早在十八世纪的判决,这凸显了先例在法律实践中的重要性。普通法系和大陆法系之间的这种分歧反映了根本不同的法律理念和传统。大陆法系国家寻求建立明确的成文法规则,而英国则倾向于更有机和渐进的体系,即通过司法判决来塑造和调整法律。这种方法使英国的法律体系保持了灵活性和适应性,尽管其法典化和系统化程度低于欧洲大陆国家。

盎格鲁-撒克逊法律是司法法律,因此没有受到罗马法的影响,这种说法需要加以限定。虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊法律体系(或称普通法)的特点是以判例法和司法先例为基础,但它通过各种历史和法律渠道间接受到罗马法的影响,特别是在大不列颠罗马帝国时期,以及后来通过与欧洲大陆的教会法和罗马-日耳曼法的互动。不过,普通法的发展确实相对独立于以罗马法为基础的民法体系,而罗马法在欧洲大陆占主导地位。在采用英美普通法体系的国家,判例法被视为正式的法律渊源。面对争议时,法官首先要看过去是否有类似的案件被判决过。如果存在先例,法官通常有义务在其判决中遵循先例。这种做法被称为 "stare decisis"(遵循过去的判决),可确保法律的一致性和可预测性。相反,当法官面对一个没有明确先例的新案件时,他或她的判决就会确立一个新的先例。这一新先例将对所有同级或更低级别的法官具有约束力,从而指导今后类似案件的判决。这种先例规则是普通法体系的根本,并导致判例法体系的形成。因此,判例法是通过法院案例制定和发展起来的法律。它与大陆法系的不同之处在于,它主要通过法院判决而非法典或成文法来发展。这一特点赋予了普通法体系灵活性和适应社会变化和新情况的能力,但也可能导致一定的复杂性和不断进行法律解释的需要。

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