拉丁美洲国家的独立 - Historique des versions

Arthur : /* General considerations */

2023-08-18T11:43:39Z

General considerations

Arthur : /* 拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯） */

2023-08-18T11:42:43Z

拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯）

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	== 拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯） ==		== 拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯） ==

	[[File:Jose de San Martin.jpg\|thumb\|~~Fotografía única de José de San Martín.~~]]		[[File:Jose de San Martin.jpg\|thumb\|何塞-德-圣马丁的独特照片。]]

	A principios del siglo XIX, Buenos Aires, recién ascendida a capital del Virreinato del Río de la Plata, encarnaba un microcosmos vibrante y diverso de Sudamérica. Esta pequeña ciudad portuaria era mucho más que un centro comercial y administrativo; era el crisol de una sociedad compuesta, que reunía a afrodescendientes, miembros de guarniciones militares, gauchos (vaqueros) y otros grupos étnicos. El año 1807 marcó un punto de inflexión en la historia de la ciudad. Por aquel entonces, los británicos, que pretendían extender su influencia en la región, ocuparon Buenos Aires. Pero lejos de rendirse, los habitantes de la ciudad, en un arranque de patriotismo y determinación, lograron expulsar a los invasores. Este episodio, aunque breve, tuvo un profundo impacto en la conciencia colectiva de la población. La victoria sobre los británicos no sólo reforzó la autonomía de Buenos Aires, sino que despertó un sentimiento de identidad y orgullo nacionales. Esta experiencia de resistencia fue fuente de inspiración y precursora de la posterior lucha por la independencia. La resistencia contra la ocupación británica no fue simplemente un conflicto militar; simbolizó una afirmación de autonomía y soberanía que trascendió las divisiones sociales y culturales de la ciudad. Los diferentes grupos que componían la población de Buenos Aires encontraron en esta lucha un objetivo común, forjando una solidaridad que perduraría en los años venideros. De este modo, el episodio de 1807 en Buenos Aires no fue simplemente un hecho histórico aislado, sino una etapa crucial en la formación de una identidad nacional argentina. Sentó las bases de una conciencia política y una aspiración independentista que culminaría con la declaración de independencia de Argentina en 1816. La resistencia de Buenos Aires sigue siendo un símbolo del espíritu indomable de una nación incipiente, y un recordatorio del poder de la unidad y la determinación en la búsqueda de la libertad y la soberanía.		19 世纪初，刚刚晋升为拉普拉塔河总督辖区首府的布宜诺斯艾利斯是南美洲充满活力和多样性的缩影。这座小港口城市不仅是一个商业和行政中心，还是一个综合社会的大熔炉，汇集了非洲后裔、驻军、牛仔和其他民族。1807 年是该镇历史的转折点。当时，英国人为了扩大其在该地区的影响力，占领了布宜诺斯艾利斯。但是，布宜诺斯艾利斯的居民们并没有屈服，而是以强烈的爱国主义精神和坚定的决心，成功地驱逐了入侵者。这一事件虽然短暂，却对民众的集体意识产生了深远影响。对英国人的胜利不仅加强了布宜诺斯艾利斯的自治，还唤起了人们的民族认同感和自豪感。这段抵抗经历是后来独立斗争的灵感源泉和先驱。对英国占领的抵抗不仅仅是一场军事冲突，它象征着对自治和主权的主张，超越了城市的社会和文化鸿沟。构成布宜诺斯艾利斯人口的不同群体在这场斗争中找到了共同的目标，形成了一种团结，这种团结将持续多年。因此，1807 年在布宜诺斯艾利斯发生的事件不仅仅是一个孤立的历史事件，而是阿根廷民族特性形成过程中的一个关键阶段。它为政治意识和独立愿望奠定了基础，最终导致阿根廷于 1816 年宣布独立。布宜诺斯艾利斯的抵抗运动仍然是一个新生国家不屈不挠精神的象征，提醒人们在追求自由和主权的过程中团结和决心的力量。

	En 1810, el espíritu independentista que bullía en Buenos Aires llegó a su punto de ebullición y la ciudad declaró su independencia de España. Pero esta búsqueda de la libertad no fue un camino sin obstáculos; se complicó por las divisiones internas y la persistente presencia de fuerzas realistas en otras partes del virreinato. Estas divisiones tenían su origen en diferencias de clase social, intereses económicos y visión política. Por un lado, estaban los partidarios de la independencia que querían romper todos los lazos con la corona española, y por otro, los monárquicos que buscaban mantener el statu quo y la lealtad a España. Estas diferencias crearon tensiones y conflictos que hicieron arduo y complejo el camino hacia la independencia. A pesar de estos desafíos, prevaleció la determinación y la unidad entre Buenos Aires y las provincias circundantes. Tras varios años de lucha y negociación, finalmente lograron la independencia en 1816. Esta victoria dio lugar a la formación de las Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica, precursoras de lo que más tarde sería la República Argentina. La independencia de Buenos Aires y sus provincias vecinas no fue sólo un triunfo sobre las fuerzas coloniales. Fue también una victoria sobre las divisiones y disensiones internas que podrían haber obstaculizado el proceso. La transformación de las Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica en la República Argentina ilustra la capacidad de estas regiones para superar sus diferencias, aunar fuerzas y forjar una nación. El camino hacia la independencia argentina sigue siendo un ejemplo inspirador de cómo la perseverancia, la colaboración y un objetivo común pueden triunfar incluso sobre los obstáculos más desalentadores. Él encarna la voluntad de un pueblo de emanciparse, forjar su destino y construir una nación sobre los cimientos de la libertad, la igualdad y la unidad.		1810 年，布宜诺斯艾利斯的独立精神达到沸点，宣布从西班牙独立。但是，追求自由的道路上并非没有障碍；内部的分裂以及总督辖区其他地方保皇党势力的持续存在使这一道路变得更加复杂。这些分歧源于阶级差异、经济利益和政治理念。一方是希望与西班牙王室断绝一切关系的独立支持者，另一方是试图维持现状和效忠西班牙的保皇党人。这些分歧造成了紧张和冲突，使独立之路变得艰辛而复杂。尽管面临这些挑战，布宜诺斯艾利斯和周边省份的决心和团结还是占了上风。经过数年的斗争和谈判，他们终于在 1816 年实现了独立。这一胜利促成了中美洲联省的成立，也就是后来阿根廷共和国的前身。布宜诺斯艾利斯及其邻近省份的独立不仅是对殖民势力的胜利。它还战胜了可能阻碍这一进程的内部分裂和分歧。中美洲联省转变为阿根廷共和国，说明这些地区有能力克服分歧，联合起来，建立一个国家。阿根廷的独立之路仍然是一个鼓舞人心的榜样，它说明了坚韧不拔的精神、协作和共同的目标如何能够战胜最艰巨的障碍。他体现了一个民族在自由、平等和团结的基础上解放自己、创造命运和建设国家的意志。

	José de San Martín es sin duda una de las figuras más importantes de la independencia sudamericana. Su papel no se limitó a la independencia de Argentina, sino que se extendió mucho más allá de sus fronteras. Comprendió que la libertad de una nación no podía asegurarse plenamente mientras las regiones vecinas permanecieran bajo el yugo colonial. Esto le llevó a emprender una serie de campañas militares que desempeñaron un papel decisivo en la liberación de Sudamérica. Tras obtener la independencia en 1816, Argentina se enfrentó a la amenaza potencial de Brasil y el virreinato de Perú. San Martín se dio cuenta de que la independencia argentina sólo sería segura si también se liberaban las regiones vecinas. San Martín emprendió una ardua campaña para liberar Chile, planificando y ejecutando un épico cruce de los Andes en 1817~~. Uniendo fuerzas con otros líderes independentistas como Bernardo~~ O'~~Higgins, logró derrotar a las fuerzas realistas en Chile y proclamar la independencia de ese país en~~ 1818. No satisfecho con estos éxitos, San Martín continuó su misión en Perú, centro neurálgico del poder español en Sudamérica. Tras una serie de batallas y negociaciones diplomáticas, logró declarar la independencia de Perú en 1821. La visión y dedicación de San Martín fueron cruciales para lograr estas victorias. Su comprensión de la naturaleza interconectada de la independencia determinó el modo en que se conquistó la libertad en Sudamérica. Las campañas de San Martín no sólo liberaron territorios, sino que sentaron las bases de la solidaridad y la identidad regionales. Su legado sigue siendo celebrado en estos países, y su contribución a la causa de la independencia sigue siendo un brillante ejemplo de liderazgo, visión estratégica y determinación.		何塞-德-圣马丁无疑是南美独立最重要的人物之一。他的作用不仅限于阿根廷的独立，而且远远超出了阿根廷的国界。他明白，只要邻近地区仍处于殖民统治之下，一个国家的自由就无法得到充分保障。这促使他开展了一系列军事行动，对南美洲的解放起到了决定性作用。1816 年获得独立后，阿根廷面临着来自巴西和秘鲁总督辖区的潜在威胁。圣马丁意识到，只有邻近地区也获得解放，阿根廷的独立才有保障。圣马丁为解放智利开展了一场艰苦卓绝的战役，他在 1817 年策划并实施了一次史诗般的穿越安第斯山脉的行动。他与贝尔纳多-奥希金斯（Bernardo O'Higgins）等其他支持独立的领导人联手，成功击败了智利的保皇党军队，并于 1818 年宣布智利独立。圣马丁并不满足于这些成功，他继续在秘鲁执行任务，秘鲁是西班牙在南美洲的权力神经中枢。经过一系列战斗和外交谈判，他于 1821 年成功宣布秘鲁独立。圣马丁的远见卓识和奉献精神对取得这些胜利至关重要。他对独立的相互关联性的理解决定了如何在南美洲赢得自由。圣马丁的战役不仅解放了领土，还为地区团结和身份认同奠定了基础。他的遗产在这些国家仍然受到颂扬，他对独立事业的贡献仍然是领导才能、战略眼光和决心的光辉典范。

	== ~~Peru~~ ==		== 秘鲁 ==

	~~Peru's independence came about in a unique context, shaped by a complex intersection of military and social forces. Caught between troops from the south, led by José~~ de San Martín, and those from the north under the command of Simón Bolívar, the country was plagued by internal tensions exacerbated by elites loyal to the Spanish king. These elites deeply feared the repercussions of independence, particularly the threat of revolts similar to that led by Túpac Amaru II in the 18th century. This climate of fear was partly fuelled by the acute awareness that independence could mean the loss of power and privilege for these elites, who had much to lose in a post-colonial society. Their resistance to independence added a further layer of complexity to an already delicate situation, where the patriotic forces of San Martín and Bolívar had to navigate through politically fragmented terrain. However, despite these obstacles, the synergy between the combined forces of San Martín and Bolívar proved decisive. Their successive military victories against the Spanish army slowly but surely eroded elite resistance and paved the way for independence. In 1821, Peru finally overcame these challenges and officially declared its independence, ushering in a new era as a republic. The trajectory of Peruvian independence thus illustrates not only the complex dynamics of the war of liberation, but also the underlying tensions and contradictions that can characterize a society in transition. It is a rich and nuanced chapter in Latin American history that continues to resonate in Peru's national consciousness.		秘鲁是在军事和社会力量复杂交织的独特背景下独立的。在何塞-德-圣马丁（José de San Martín）领导的南方军队和西蒙-玻利瓦尔（Simon Bolívar）指挥的北方军队的夹击下，忠于西班牙国王的精英们加剧了国内的紧张局势。这些精英深怕独立会带来影响，尤其是类似 18 世纪图帕克-阿马鲁二世领导的起义的威胁。这种恐惧气氛的部分原因是，这些精英深刻认识到独立可能意味着失去权力和特权，他们在后殖民社会中将失去很多东西。他们对独立的抵制给本已微妙的局势又增添了一层复杂性，在这种情况下，圣马丁和玻利瓦尔的爱国力量不得不在政治上四分五裂的局面中艰难前行。然而，尽管存在这些障碍，圣马丁和玻利瓦尔联合力量之间的协同作用被证明是决定性的。他们对西班牙军队连续取得军事胜利，缓慢但稳步地削弱了精英的抵抗，为独立铺平了道路。1821 年，秘鲁最终战胜了这些挑战，正式宣布独立，开创了共和国的新纪元。因此，秘鲁独立的轨迹不仅说明了解放战争的复杂动态，也说明了转型社会可能存在的潜在紧张关系和矛盾。这是拉丁美洲历史上丰富而又细致入微的一章，它将继续在秘鲁的民族意识中产生共鸣。

	<gallery mode="packed" widths="300" heights="200">		<gallery mode="packed" widths="300" heights="200">
	Fichier:TupacamaruI.JPG\|~~Túpac Amaru, the last Inca of Vilcabamba.~~		Fichier:TupacamaruI.JPG\|维尔卡班巴的最后一位印加人图帕克-阿马鲁。
	Fichier:Martin Tovar y Tovar 01.JPG\|~~The Battle of Ayacucho, by Martín Tovar y Tovar.~~		Fichier:Martin Tovar y Tovar 01.JPG\|阿亚库乔战役》，马丁-托瓦尔-伊-托瓦尔著。
	</gallery>		</gallery>

	~~Peru's road to independence, although officially declared in~~ 1821, did not end there. Spanish colonial resistance persisted in the region, representing an ongoing threat to the independence forces. This confrontation finally crystallized in the Battle of Ayacucho, a major conflict that took place in 1824~~. The Battle of Ayacucho was much more than a simple military confrontation; it was a symbol of the struggle for self~~-determination and freedom. The combined forces of Simón Bolívar and his loyal lieutenant, Antonio José de Sucre, were put to the test against the Spanish army led by General José de Canterac. The victory of the independence forces at Ayacucho not only marked the end of the Spanish presence in Peru, it also sounded the death knell for the Spanish Empire in South America. The triumph at Ayacucho was considered the final and decisive battle of the Spanish American Wars of Independence. This key moment in history was a turning point not only for Peru, but for the entire South American continent. After the battle, the Spanish Empire lost control of all its territories in South America, allowing these regions to forge their own destinies as independent countries. The Battle of Ayacucho therefore remains an emblem of freedom and resistance, a testament to the determination and unity of the peoples of South America in their quest for sovereignty. It is a commemoration of the courage, strategy and sacrifice that transformed a region under colonial rule into a mosaic of free and sovereign nations.		虽然秘鲁于 1821 年正式宣布独立，但独立之路并未就此结束。西班牙殖民者的抵抗在该地区持续存在，对独立势力构成持续威胁。这场对抗最终在 1824 年发生的一场重大冲突--阿亚库乔战役中结晶。阿亚库乔战役不仅仅是一场简单的军事对抗，它还是争取自决和自由斗争的象征。西蒙-玻利瓦尔和他忠诚的副手安东尼奥-何塞-德-苏克雷的联合部队经受住了何塞-德-坎特拉克将军率领的西班牙军队的考验。独立军在阿亚库乔的胜利不仅标志着西班牙在秘鲁的统治结束，也敲响了西班牙帝国在南美洲的丧钟。阿亚库乔战役的胜利被认为是西班牙美洲独立战争的最后一场决定性战役。这一历史关键时刻不仅是秘鲁的转折点，也是整个南美大陆的转折点。此战之后，西班牙帝国失去了对其在南美洲所有领土的控制，这些地区得以作为独立国家开创自己的命运。因此，阿亚库乔战役仍然是自由和抵抗的象征，是南美洲人民争取主权的决心和团结的见证。它是对勇气、战略和牺牲的纪念，是这些勇气、战略和牺牲将一个处于殖民统治下的地区变成了一个由自由和主权国家组成的马赛克。

	= ~~The consequences of independence processes~~ =		= 独立进程的后果 =
	~~The Wars of Independence in mainland Spanish America, from~~ 1814 to 1824, ushered in a period of radical transformation that had major repercussions for both Spain and the emerging nations of Latin America. For Spain, the loss of control over the American continent was a devastating blow to its prestige and economic power. While most of its colonies on the continent became independent, it managed to retain its possessions in the Caribbean, notably Cuba and Puerto Rico. Cuba, nicknamed the "~~Pearl of the Antilles~~", took on particular importance after Haiti's independence, becoming the main supplier of sugar and a jewel in the Spanish colonial crown. Puerto Rico, meanwhile, continued to play a significant strategic and economic role for Spain. However, even these bastions of the Spanish empire were destined to fade away. Spain finally lost control of Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1898 as a result of the Spanish-American War, marking the definitive end of the Spanish empire in the Americas. For the newly independent nations of Latin America, the post-colonial era was both promising and challenging. Independence brought an unprecedented opportunity to forge a national identity and determine their own political and economic path. However, they have also had to contend with internal problems, such as social divisions, civil wars, and the building of stable political institutions. The legacy of Latin America's wars of independence is therefore complex. It represents both the end of an old colonial order and the beginning of a new era of self-determination and nation-building. This process, though full of uncertainties and conflicts, laid the foundations for the region as we know it today, with its cultural richness, diversity and democratic aspirations.		1814 年至 1824 年的西班牙美洲大陆独立战争开启了一个剧变时期，对西班牙和拉丁美洲的新兴国家都产生了重大影响。对西班牙来说，失去对美洲大陆的控制是对其威望和经济实力的毁灭性打击。虽然西班牙在美洲大陆的大部分殖民地都独立了，但它设法保留了在加勒比地区的属地，特别是古巴和波多黎各。古巴绰号 "安的列斯群岛的珍珠"，在海地独立后变得尤为重要，成为蔗糖的主要供应地和西班牙殖民皇冠上的一颗明珠。与此同时，波多黎各继续为西班牙发挥着重要的战略和经济作用。然而，即使是这些西班牙帝国的堡垒也注定要消亡。1898 年，美西战争爆发，西班牙最终失去了对古巴和波多黎各的控制，标志着西班牙帝国在美洲的彻底终结。对于新独立的拉丁美洲国家来说，后殖民时代既充满希望，又充满挑战。独立为他们带来了前所未有的机会，使他们能够塑造民族身份，决定自己的政治和经济道路。然而，这些国家也不得不面对内部问题，如社会分裂、内战和建立稳定的政治体制。因此，拉丁美洲独立战争的遗产是复杂的。它既代表着旧殖民秩序的结束，也代表着自决和国家建设新时代的开始。这一进程虽然充满了不确定性和冲突，但却为我们今天所了解的这个文化丰富、具有多样性和民主愿望的地区奠定了基础。

	On the other hand, the newly independent countries of Latin America faced monumental challenges in their quest for nation-building and the creation of stable governments. The process was far from straightforward, as the obstacles were many and deep-rooted. The territories that made up these new nations had very diverse ethnic, linguistic and cultural origins, reflecting a complex mosaic of peoples and traditions. This diversity, while an asset, complicated the task of forging a cohesive national identity and a shared sense of belonging. In addition, social and economic structures were deeply marked by the legacy of colonialism and slavery. Social inequalities were deeply rooted, and the economy was often dependent on a few export products, leaving nations vulnerable to the fluctuations of world markets. Local elites, who had often played an important role in independence movements, now had to navigate these challenges without the framework of colonial governance. Tensions between different social groups, regional aspirations and divergent political ideologies often led to conflict and political instability. Despite these challenges, the newly-independent countries resolutely set about building a new identity and sense of nationhood. It was a long and arduous process, with advances and setbacks, but one that ultimately led to the creation of distinct nation-states, each with its own characteristics and its own path to modernity. The experience of nation-building in Latin America remains a fascinating chapter in world history, illustrating both the possibilities and difficulties of creating new nations in the wake of colonial domination. It continues to inform and shape the region today, reflecting a complex and rich history that continues to resonate in the political, social and cultural life of Latin American nations.		另一方面，拉丁美洲新独立国家在寻求建国和建立稳定政府的过程中面临着巨大挑战。这一进程远非一帆风顺，因为障碍众多且根深蒂固。组成这些新国家的领土在种族、语言和文化渊源上各不相同，反映了民族和传统的复杂拼凑。这种多样性虽然是一种财富，但却使形成具有凝聚力的民族身份和共同归属感的任务变得更加复杂。此外，殖民主义和奴隶制遗留下来的社会和经济结构也留下了深深的烙印。社会不平等根深蒂固，经济往往依赖于少数几种出口产品，使国家很容易受到世界市场波动的影响。地方精英往往在独立运动中发挥重要作用，现在他们必须在没有殖民治理框架的情况下应对这些挑战。不同社会群体之间的紧张关系、地区愿望和不同的政治意识形态往往导致冲突和政治不稳定。尽管面临这些挑战，新独立国家还是毅然决然地开始建立新的身份认同和民族意识。这是一个漫长而艰苦的过程，有进步也有挫折，但最终建立了各具特色的民族国家，每个国家都有自己的特点和通往现代化的道路。拉丁美洲的建国经历仍然是世界历史上引人入胜的篇章，它说明了在殖民统治之后建立新国家的可能性和困难。今天，它继续影响和塑造着该地区，反映了复杂而丰富的历史，并继续在拉丁美洲国家的政治、社会和文化生活中产生共鸣。

	= General considerations =		= General considerations =

Arthur : /* 委内瑞拉 */

2023-08-18T11:40:52Z

委内瑞拉

Voir les modifications

Arthur : /* Mexico */

2023-08-18T11:40:01Z

Mexico

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	面对美洲殖民地日益壮大的独立运动，西班牙国王斐迪南七世采取了坚决的重新征服行动。他非但没有寻求通过谈判解决问题，也没有满足更多自治和权利的要求，而是选择了镇压的道路。斐迪南七世的战略是向殖民地派遣军队，其明确目的是重新确立西班牙的控制权。这场战役的特点是使用蛮力和无情镇压。西班牙军队毫不犹豫地使用一切必要手段镇压叛乱，包括逮捕、处决和流放众多独立领袖。领导反抗的克里奥尔精英和其他人物面临着严厉的镇压。许多人被监禁，一些人被处决，还有一些人被迫流亡。所传达的信息很明确：任何反对西班牙王室的行为都将遭到无情的打击。但是，镇压非但没有摧毁反抗精神，反而激发了独立运动。在对自由、自决和正义的强烈渴望的驱使下，独立战士们拒绝屈服。他们继续战斗，常常克服重重困难，做出巨大的个人和集体牺牲。争取独立的斗争跨越十年，经历了无数次战斗、挫折和胜利。道路漫长而艰难，但殖民地人民的决心从未动摇。最终，尽管西班牙拼命维护自己的统治，但大多数殖民地还是在 1824 年成功获得了独立。斐迪南七世的重新征服失败了，但它留下的伤痕却深刻而持久，并继续影响着新独立国家的记忆和身份认同。		面对美洲殖民地日益壮大的独立运动，西班牙国王斐迪南七世采取了坚决的重新征服行动。他非但没有寻求通过谈判解决问题，也没有满足更多自治和权利的要求，而是选择了镇压的道路。斐迪南七世的战略是向殖民地派遣军队，其明确目的是重新确立西班牙的控制权。这场战役的特点是使用蛮力和无情镇压。西班牙军队毫不犹豫地使用一切必要手段镇压叛乱，包括逮捕、处决和流放众多独立领袖。领导反抗的克里奥尔精英和其他人物面临着严厉的镇压。许多人被监禁，一些人被处决，还有一些人被迫流亡。所传达的信息很明确：任何反对西班牙王室的行为都将遭到无情的打击。但是，镇压非但没有摧毁反抗精神，反而激发了独立运动。在对自由、自决和正义的强烈渴望的驱使下，独立战士们拒绝屈服。他们继续战斗，常常克服重重困难，做出巨大的个人和集体牺牲。争取独立的斗争跨越十年，经历了无数次战斗、挫折和胜利。道路漫长而艰难，但殖民地人民的决心从未动摇。最终，尽管西班牙拼命维护自己的统治，但大多数殖民地还是在 1824 年成功获得了独立。斐迪南七世的重新征服失败了，但它留下的伤痕却深刻而持久，并继续影响着新独立国家的记忆和身份认同。

	== ~~Mexico~~ ==		== 墨西哥 ==

	~~The independence movement in Mexico, sparked off by Father~~ Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, is a fascinating and complex chapter in the country's history. Hidalgo, a white priest born in Mexico, had become increasingly indignant at the injustice and brutality with which the Mexican people were treated by the Spanish authorities and the Spanish-born elites, known as "gachupines." ~~Inspired by a desire for change and a vision of a fairer, more inclusive government, Hidalgo took a bold step in~~ 1810. He launched an open rebellion against the Spanish, calling on Mexicans of all origins, races and social classes to join him in the fight for independence. His call was a rallying cry, transcending the deep divisions that had marked Mexican society. Hidalgo's rebellion met with initial success. The troops, galvanized by their cause and charismatic leader, won several victories. But the Spanish army, well-equipped and determined, finally got the upper hand. Hidalgo was captured, tried and executed in 1811. His death was a blow to the movement, but far from ending the struggle, it actually strengthened it. Hidalgo's rebellion had lit a spark, and the flame of independence continues to burn. Under the leadership of other heroic figures, such as José María ~~Morelos and Vicente Guerrero, the War of Independence continued for~~ 11 ~~tumultuous years. It was a period marked by fierce battles, courageous sacrifices and unshakeable determination. Finally, in~~ 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain. Hidalgo's dream was realized, but the price was high. The memory of Father Hidalgo and his companions remains etched in Mexican history, a symbol of the struggle for justice and freedom. Their legacy continues to inspire future generations, reminding us that courage and conviction can triumph over even the most formidable obstacles.		由米格尔-伊达尔戈-伊-科斯蒂亚神父（Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla）发起的墨西哥独立运动是该国历史上精彩而复杂的一章。伊达尔戈是一名出生在墨西哥的白人神父，他对西班牙当局和西班牙出生的精英（被称为 "gachupines"）对待墨西哥人民的不公正和残暴行为日益愤慨。出于对变革的渴望和建立一个更公平、更包容的政府的愿景，伊达尔戈在 1810 年迈出了大胆的一步。他发动了对西班牙人的公开叛乱，号召所有出身、种族和社会阶层的墨西哥人与他一起为独立而战。他的号召是一种集结号，超越了墨西哥社会的深刻分歧。伊达尔戈的叛乱取得了初步成功。部队被他们的事业和魅力四射的领袖所鼓舞，取得了几次胜利。但装备精良、意志坚定的西班牙军队最终占了上风。1811 年，伊达尔戈被捕、受审并被处决。他的死对这场运动是一个打击，但这场斗争非但没有结束，反而得到了加强。伊达尔戈的叛乱点燃了星星之火，而独立的火焰仍在继续燃烧。在何塞-玛丽亚-莫雷洛斯（José María Morelos）和维森特-格雷罗（Vicente Guerrero）等其他英勇人物的领导下，独立战争持续了 11 年。这是一个充满激烈战斗、勇敢牺牲和坚定决心的时期。最终，墨西哥于 1821 年从西班牙赢得独立。伊达尔戈的梦想实现了，但代价是高昂的。对伊达尔戈神父和他的同伴们的怀念永远铭刻在墨西哥的历史中，他们是为正义和自由而战的象征。他们的遗志继续激励着后代，提醒我们勇气和信念可以战胜最可怕的障碍。

	Hidalgo's rebellion was primarily a political and social movement, although his character as a priest certainly influenced his role and the way he was perceived. His desire to end Spanish rule, eliminate inequality and create a fairer, more equitable government were at the heart of his rebellion. Hidalgo's call for revolution was not simply a call for national independence, but also a cry for social justice. He wanted to break the caste system that kept the vast majority of the Mexican population in poverty and subservience. That's why his movement attracted so many peasants, natives and mestizos, who were the most oppressed by the colonial system. Class dynamics took on considerable importance during the rebellion, and Hidalgo's troops targeted haciendas and other symbols of Creole wealth and power. This intensification of class struggle may have exceeded what Hidalgo had initially anticipated, and it certainly complicated his efforts to maintain control and unity within his movement. Despite these challenges and the divisions within his forces, Hidalgo's rebellion had a profound impact. It helped shape Mexican national identity and define the goals and values of the struggle for independence. After Hidalgo's death, the cause of independence was taken up by other leaders, including José María Morelos and Vicente Guerrero, who continued to fight against oppression and injustice. Their legacy, like Hidalgo's, still resonates today in Mexico's history and culture, reminding us of the importance of justice, equality and freedom.		伊达尔戈的叛乱主要是一场政治和社会运动，尽管他作为牧师的性格肯定影响了他的角色和人们对他的看法。他希望结束西班牙的统治，消除不平等，建立一个更加公平、公正的政府，这是他叛乱的核心。伊达尔戈的革命号召不仅仅是要求民族独立，也是对社会正义的呐喊。他希望打破使绝大多数墨西哥人陷入贫困和屈从的种姓制度。这就是为什么他的运动吸引了如此多的农民、土著和混血儿，他们是受殖民制度压迫最深的群体。在叛乱期间，阶级动态变得相当重要，伊达尔戈的军队将目标对准了庄园和其他克里奥尔人财富和权力的象征。阶级斗争的加剧可能超出了伊达尔戈最初的预料，这无疑使他在运动中保持控制和团结的努力变得更加复杂。尽管面临这些挑战，他的部队内部也存在分歧，但伊达尔戈的叛乱还是产生了深远的影响。它帮助塑造了墨西哥的民族身份，确定了独立斗争的目标和价值观。伊达尔戈去世后，何塞-玛丽亚-莫雷洛斯和比森特-格雷罗等其他领导人接过了独立事业的接力棒，继续与压迫和不公正作斗争。与伊达尔戈一样，他们的遗产今天仍在墨西哥的历史和文化中产生共鸣，提醒我们正义、平等和自由的重要性。<gallery mode="packed" widths="350" heights="250">
			Fichier:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.jpg\|米格尔-伊达尔戈-伊-科斯蒂亚
	<gallery mode="packed" widths="350" heights="250">		Fichier:Morelos por autor anónimo.jpg\|莫雷洛斯，作者匿名。
	Fichier:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.jpg\|~~Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.~~		Fichier:Iturbide Emperador by Josephus Arias Huerta.jpg\|墨西哥的奥古斯丁-伊尔
	Fichier:Morelos por autor anónimo.jpg\|~~Morelos por autor anónimo.~~
	Fichier:Iturbide Emperador by Josephus Arias Huerta.jpg\|~~Augustin I{{er}} of Mexico.~~
	</gallery>		</gallery>

	After Hidalgo's capture and execution, José María Morelos, who was also a priest, took up the struggle and was a gifted military and political leader. Morelos' vision went beyond purely political independence and embraced far-reaching social reforms. He was particularly concerned about racial and economic inequality, and called for the abolition of slavery, land redistribution and equality for all citizens, regardless of race or social origin. His progressive ideals were incorporated into the document known as the Sentiments of the Nation, which was adopted by the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813. This document was a proclamation of the principles and objectives of the independence movement, and served as the basis for the future Mexican constitution. Morelos succeeded in controlling a significant part of the country, but had difficulty maintaining control of his troops. Internal divisions and ideological differences weakened the movement, and Morelos himself was captured and executed by the Spanish in 1815. Despite these setbacks, the War of Independence continued, largely thanks to the commitment and determination of leaders like Vicente Guerrero. Eventually, the Spanish colonial forces were worn down, and the Plan d'Iguala in 1821 led to a negotiated independence, sealing Mexico's independence. The ideals and legacy of these great leaders, like Hidalgo and Morelos, continued to influence Mexican politics and national identity long after their deaths, and they are commemorated today as national heroes in Mexico.		伊达尔戈被俘和处决后，身为牧师的何塞-玛丽亚-莫雷洛斯接过了斗争的担子，他是一位才华横溢的军事和政治领袖。莫雷洛斯的远见卓识超越了纯粹的政治独立，而是进行了意义深远的社会改革。他尤其关注种族和经济不平等问题，呼吁废除奴隶制、重新分配土地以及不分种族和社会出身的所有公民一律平等。他的进步理想被写入了 1813 年奇尔潘辛戈大会通过的《民族情绪》文件。这份文件宣告了独立运动的原则和目标，是未来墨西哥宪法的基础。莫雷洛斯成功控制了全国大部分地区，但难以维持对军队的控制。内部分裂和意识形态分歧削弱了这场运动，莫雷洛斯本人于 1815 年被西班牙人抓获并处决。尽管遭受了这些挫折，独立战争仍在继续，这主要归功于维森特-格雷罗等领导人的承诺和决心。最终，西班牙殖民军被击溃，1821 年的《伊瓜拉计划》通过谈判达成独立协议，宣告了墨西哥的独立。伊达尔戈和莫雷洛斯等这些伟大领袖的理想和遗产在他们去世后很长时间内仍在影响着墨西哥的政治和国家认同，今天，他们作为民族英雄在墨西哥受到纪念。

	The end of the Mexican War of Independence and the role of Agustín de Iturbide are crucial chapters in the history of Mexican independence. Agustín de Iturbide was originally a royalist officer in the Spanish army. However, he understood that the tide was turning in favor of independence and sought to position Mexico (and himself) advantageously in this new reality. He negotiated with Vicente Guerrero, one of the insurgent leaders, and together they drew up the Plan d'Iguala in 1821. The Plan d'Iguala proposed three main guarantees: the Catholic religion would remain the nation's sole religion, Spaniards and Mexicans would be equal before the law, and Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy. These proposals helped win the support of various groups, including conservatives concerned with maintaining social order. Following acceptance of the plan by the various parties, Iturbide led the Army of the Three Guarantees, named after the three key principles of the Plan d'Iguala, and quickly secured Mexico's independence. Iturbide then proclaimed himself emperor in 1822, but his reign was short-lived. His government was unpopular with many sectors of society, and he was overthrown in 1823. Mexico then became a republic, and the process of nation-building and political stabilization began, a process that was marked by continuous conflict and struggle throughout the 19th century. Mexico's path to independence illustrates the complexity and challenges inherent in the creation of a new nation, particularly in a context of deep social and economic divisions. The ideals of independence have continued to influence Mexican politics and society for decades, and the heroes of the struggle for independence are commemorated each year in the celebration of Independence Day on September 16.		墨西哥独立战争的结束和奥古斯丁-德-伊图维德的作用是墨西哥独立史上至关重要的篇章。奥古斯丁-德-伊图维德原本是西班牙军队中的一名保皇派军官。然而，他意识到潮流正朝着有利于独立的方向发展，并试图让墨西哥（和他自己）在这一新的现实中处于有利地位。他与起义军领导人之一比森特-格雷罗（Vicente Guerrero）进行谈判，并于 1821 年共同制定了伊瓜拉计划。伊瓜拉计划》提出了三项主要保证：天主教将继续作为国家的唯一宗教；西班牙人和墨西哥人在法律面前一律平等；墨西哥将实行君主立宪制。这些建议赢得了不同团体的支持，其中包括关心维护社会秩序的保守派。在各党派接受该计划后，伊图维德领导了以伊瓜拉计划三项主要原则命名的三保军队，并迅速确保了墨西哥的独立。伊图维德随后于 1822 年自封为皇帝，但他的统治并不长久。他的政府不受社会各界欢迎，1823 年被推翻。墨西哥随后成为共和国，开始了国家建设和政治稳定的进程，在整个 19 世纪，这一进程的特点是冲突和斗争不断。墨西哥的独立之路说明了创建一个新国家所固有的复杂性和挑战，尤其是在社会和经济严重分裂的背景下。几十年来，独立的理想一直影响着墨西哥的政治和社会，每年 9 月 16 日的独立日都会纪念为独立而斗争的英雄们。

	~~Independence in Central America was more peaceful than in other parts of Latin America. On September~~ 15, 1821, the leaders of the General Captaincy of Guatemala, which encompassed what are now Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, signed the Central American Act of Independence. This document proclaimed their independence from Spain, but there was no clear consensus on the way forward. Shortly after independence from Spain, Central America was briefly annexed to Iturbide's Mexican Empire in 1822. After the collapse of the Iturbide Empire in 1823, Central America separated from Mexico and formed the Federal Republic of Central America. The Federal Republic was marked by internal conflicts and tensions between liberals and conservatives, as well as regional differences. It finally broke up in 1840, with each state becoming a sovereign nation. Central American independence is therefore unique in that it was not the result of a long and bloody war of independence, but rather of a combination of internal and external political and social factors. The process reflects the diversity and complexity of independence movements in Latin America, which were influenced by local, regional and international factors.		与拉丁美洲其他地区相比，中美洲的独立更加和平。1821 年 9 月 15 日，危地马拉总司令部（包括现在的危地马拉、洪都拉斯、萨尔瓦多、尼加拉瓜和哥斯达黎加）的领导人签署了《中美洲独立法案》。这份文件宣布中美洲从西班牙独立，但对未来的发展方向没有达成明确的共识。从西班牙独立后不久，中美洲于 1822 年被短暂并入伊图维德的墨西哥帝国。1823 年伊图维德帝国崩溃后，中美洲脱离墨西哥，成立了中美洲联邦共和国。联邦共和国内部冲突不断，自由派和保守派之间关系紧张，地区之间也存在分歧。联邦共和国最终于 1840 年解体，各州成为一个主权国家。因此，中美洲的独立是独特的，因为它不是一场漫长而血腥的独立战争的结果，而是内外政治和社会因素共同作用的结果。这一进程反映了拉丁美洲独立运动的多样性和复杂性，这些运动受到当地、地区和国际因素的影响。

	== ~~Venezuela~~ ==		== 委内瑞拉 ==

	In Venezuela, the independence movement emerged as an effort led by wealthy Creole elites, motivated by a desire for greater autonomy and political power away from the Spanish colonial yoke. However, this quest did not take place in a vacuum; it came up against the complexity of a diverse society, characterized by the presence of large numbers of enslaved Africans and indigenous peoples. The situation was further complicated by the influence of revolutionary movements abroad, in particular the example of Haiti. The Caribbean island had succeeded in gaining independence from France thanks to a slave rebellion, and the other sugar-producing West Indies were also experiencing slave revolts. These events awakened in the Creole elites both a sense of inspiration and fear, prompting them to seek independence for their own benefit while being aware of the underlying tensions with the lower classes. These lower classes, composed mainly of slaves and natives, also aspired to freedom and equality, but their interests did not necessarily coincide with those of the Creole elites. The resulting tension between these divergent groups created a volatile terrain and shaped the independence movement in a unique way. Instead of a straightforward transition to autonomy, Venezuela found itself in an internal struggle to define what independence would mean for its entire population. The result was a path to independence marked by conflict and compromise, in which questions of race and social inequality played a central role. This tension did not disappear with the achievement of independence in 1821; it continued to shape the country's political and social development, leaving a complex legacy that continues to influence contemporary Venezuela.		In Venezuela, the independence movement emerged as an effort led by wealthy Creole elites, motivated by a desire for greater autonomy and political power away from the Spanish colonial yoke. However, this quest did not take place in a vacuum; it came up against the complexity of a diverse society, characterized by the presence of large numbers of enslaved Africans and indigenous peoples. The situation was further complicated by the influence of revolutionary movements abroad, in particular the example of Haiti. The Caribbean island had succeeded in gaining independence from France thanks to a slave rebellion, and the other sugar-producing West Indies were also experiencing slave revolts. These events awakened in the Creole elites both a sense of inspiration and fear, prompting them to seek independence for their own benefit while being aware of the underlying tensions with the lower classes. These lower classes, composed mainly of slaves and natives, also aspired to freedom and equality, but their interests did not necessarily coincide with those of the Creole elites. The resulting tension between these divergent groups created a volatile terrain and shaped the independence movement in a unique way. Instead of a straightforward transition to autonomy, Venezuela found itself in an internal struggle to define what independence would mean for its entire population. The result was a path to independence marked by conflict and compromise, in which questions of race and social inequality played a central role. This tension did not disappear with the achievement of independence in 1821; it continued to shape the country's political and social development, leaving a complex legacy that continues to influence contemporary Venezuela.

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西属美洲大陆：从效忠国王到内战（1810-1814 年）

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Arthur : /* General considerations */

Arthur : /* 拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯） */

Arthur : /* 委内瑞拉 */

Arthur : /* Mexico */

Arthur : /* 西属美洲大陆：从效忠国王到内战（1810-1814 年） */

Arthur le 18 août 2023 à 11:37

Arthur : /* General considerations */

Arthur : /* 拉普拉塔河（布宜诺斯艾利斯） */

Arthur : /* 委内瑞拉 */

Arthur : /* Mexico */

Arthur : /* 西属美洲大陆：从效忠国王到内战（1810-1814 年） */