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Arthur : /* Inequalities Since the Industrial Revolution: A Historical Context */

2023-12-07T09:55:37Z

Inequalities Since the Industrial Revolution: A Historical Context

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	获得教育和机会也是消除不平等和贫困的一个关键因素。优质教育和人人机会均等对于打破贫困循环和确保更公平的财富分配至关重要。无法获得这些资源会使贫困和不平等代代相传。		获得教育和机会也是消除不平等和贫困的一个关键因素。优质教育和人人机会均等对于打破贫困循环和确保更公平的财富分配至关重要。无法获得这些资源会使贫困和不平等代代相传。

	==~~Inequalities Since the Industrial Revolution: A Historical Context~~==		==工业革命以来的不平等现象：历史背景==
	Between the 1850s and the 1930s, many societies experienced significant improvements in living conditions. This period, marked by rapid industrialisation and technological progress, brought about profound changes in the way people lived and worked. Although this era was characterised by considerable social and economic disparities, it also saw the emergence of new jobs, improved infrastructure and greater access to goods and services previously inaccessible to large sections of the population.		从十九世纪五十年代到二十世纪三十年代，许多社会的生活条件都得到了显著改善。这一时期，以快速工业化和技术进步为标志，人们的生活和工作方式发生了深刻变化。虽然这个时代的特点是社会和经济差距相当大，但也出现了新的工作岗位，基础设施得到改善，更多的人可以获得以前大部分人无法获得的商品和服务。

	~~The period from~~ 1930 to 1970 was particularly crucial in reducing poverty. The rise of the consumer society, combined with the application of the Fordist model of mass production, led to a substantial improvement in living standards. Fordism, characterised by standardised production and high wages, gave the middle class access to a wider range of goods. At the same time, the development of the welfare state, with transfer incomes such as pensions, unemployment benefits and social assistance, played a key role in reducing poverty and stabilising the economy. However, since the 1970s, the situation has changed significantly. Inequalities have tended to increase, a phenomenon often attributed to factors such as globalisation, technological change, and economic and fiscal policies. This period has also been marked by more uncertain economic growth and increased challenges for the funding of the welfare state. The rising cost of social services, combined with sometimes limited tax resources, has posed considerable challenges to maintaining the level of social benefits.		1930 年至 1970 年这一时期对于减少贫困尤为重要。消费社会的兴起，加上福特主义大规模生产模式的应用，使生活水平得到了大幅提高。以标准化生产和高工资为特征的福特主义使中产阶级有机会获得更广泛的商品。与此同时，福利国家的发展，以及养老金、失业救济金和社会援助等转移性收入，在减少贫困和稳定经济方面发挥了关键作用。然而，自 20 世纪 70 年代以来，情况发生了重大变化。不平等有加剧的趋势，这一现象通常归因于全球化、技术变革以及经济和财政政策等因素。这一时期的特点还包括经济增长更加不确定，福利国家的资金筹措面临更多挑战。社会服务的成本不断上升，再加上有时税收资源有限，给维持社会福利水平带来了相当大的挑战。

	The financing of the welfare state has become a central issue of political economy, involving debates on resource allocation, taxation, and the balance between market policies and state intervention. This situation underlines the need for prudent and innovative economic and social management to meet the changing needs of societies and to ensure a fair distribution of wealth. This historical evolution reflects the fluctuations and ongoing challenges in the fight against poverty and inequality, underlining the importance of adapted and responsive policies to meet these challenges.		福利国家的筹资问题已成为政治经济学的核心问题，涉及资源分配、税收以及市场政策与国家干预之间的平衡等方面的辩论。这种情况凸显了谨慎和创新的经济和社会管理的必要性，以满足不断变化的社会需求，并确保财富的公平分配。这一历史演变反映了在消除贫困和不平等方面的波动和持续挑战，强调了为应对这些挑战而采取适应性强、反应迅速的政策的重要性。

	==~~Recent trends in inequality: a contemporary analysis~~==		==不平等的最新趋势：当代分析==
	~~The wealthiest~~ 5% ~~of US households saw a spectacular rise in their incomes, with an increase of~~ 81% ~~after adjusting for inflation. This income growth for the richest contrasts sharply with that for lower income groups. For example, the poorest~~ 20% ~~of households saw their incomes rise by just~~ 3% ~~over this period. This disparity indicates not only a growing concentration of wealth, but also a widening economic gap between rich and poor.~~		美国最富有的 5%家庭的收入增长惊人，扣除通货膨胀因素后增长了 81%。最富有人群的收入增长与低收入人群的收入增长形成了鲜明对比。例如，最贫穷的 20% 家庭在此期间的收入仅增长了 3%。这种差距不仅表明财富日益集中，也表明贫富之间的经济差距在不断扩大。

	~~At the bottom end of the economic scale, the situation is even more worrying. One in ten Americans has a lower income than in~~ 1977, suggesting a deterioration in economic conditions for a significant proportion of the population. This stagnation or decline in income for the poorest can be attributed to a variety of factors, such as changes in the structure of the labour market, the decline in the value of minimum wages, and economic and tax policies. For the middle classes, which make up around 60% ~~of the US population, the increase in income has been relatively modest, with an increase of just~~ 8% ~~compared with~~ 1977~~. Although this represents growth, it is small compared to that of the upper strata of society. At the top end of the scale, the scenario is very different. The richest~~ 20% ~~of Americans have seen their income rise by~~ 43% ~~compared with 1977, and for the top~~ 10% ~~the increase is even more marked, with a~~ 115% explosion in income over the same period. These figures illustrate a considerable accumulation of wealth among the most affluent. These trends show that economic inequality has increased in the US over this period, with substantially higher economic gains for the richest compared to the middle classes and the poorest. This dynamic highlights important questions about economic equity, social mobility, and the policies needed to address these growing inequalities.		在经济底层，情况更加令人担忧。每十个美国人中就有一个人的收入低于 1977 年，这表明相当一部分人的经济状况在恶化。最贫困人口收入的停滞或下降可归因于多种因素，如劳动力市场结构的变化、最低工资价值的下降以及经济和税收政策。对于占美国人口约 60% 的中产阶级来说，收入增长相对较小，与 1977 年相比仅增长了 8%。尽管这代表了增长，但与社会上层相比，增长幅度很小。在最高阶层，情况则截然不同。与 1977 年相比，最富有的 20% 的美国人的收入增长了 43%，而最富有的 10%的人的收入增长更为显著，在同一时期增长了 115%。这些数字表明，最富裕阶层的财富积累相当可观。这些趋势表明，在此期间，美国的经济不平等加剧，与中产阶级和最贫困阶层相比，最富有阶层的经济收益要高得多。这一动态凸显了有关经济公平、社会流动性以及解决这些日益加剧的不平等所需的政策等重要问题。

	==~~Key Factors in the Rise of Inequality: Understanding the Deep Causes~~==		==不平等加剧的关键因素：了解深层原因==
	The reality of rising inequality is widely acknowledged, although there are some exceptions. One of the major factors behind this rise in inequality is the retreat of the welfare state. In many countries, cuts in social spending, the privatisation of public services and reductions in social security benefits have contributed to a more unequal distribution of wealth. These policies have often been justified by the need to reduce budget deficits and promote economic efficiency. However, they have also had the effect of reducing safety nets for the most vulnerable populations and reducing income redistribution, thereby exacerbating inequality and poverty.		不平等加剧的现实已得到广泛承认，但也有一些例外。不平等加剧背后的一个主要因素是福利国家的退缩。在许多国家，社会支出的削减、公共服务的私有化以及社会保障福利的减少，导致财富分配更加不平等。这些政策的理由往往是需要减少预算赤字和提高经济效率。然而，这些政策也产生了减少对最弱势群体的安全网和减少收入再分配的效果，从而加剧了不平等和贫困。

	The globalisation of the labour market is another important factor. It has led to an intensification of competition on a global scale, putting workers from different countries in competition with each other. This competition has often favoured countries with lower labour costs, leading to company relocations and de-industrialisation in certain regions, particularly in developed countries. These changes have had a significant impact on jobs and wages, particularly in the manufacturing sectors, contributing to an increase in income inequality. In addition, advances in transport and logistics have made it easier and cheaper to move production around the world. This has enabled companies to maximise their profitability by taking advantage of differences in production costs between countries, but it has also contributed to the loss of jobs in certain sectors and regions, exacerbating deindustrialisation.		劳动力市场的全球化是另一个重要因素。它导致全球范围内的竞争加剧，使来自不同国家的工人相互竞争。这种竞争往往有利于劳动力成本较低的国家，从而导致某些地区，特别是发达国家的公司搬迁和非工业化。这些变化对就业和工资产生了重大影响，尤其是在制造业部门，导致收入不平等加剧。此外，运输和物流业的进步也使得在全球范围内转移生产变得更加容易和便宜。这使企业能够利用国家间生产成本的差异实现利润最大化，但也造成了某些行业和地区工作岗位的流失，加剧了非工业化。

	~~These combined factors~~ - ~~the decline of the welfare state, the globalisation of the labour market, and changes in production and transport~~ - have contributed to an increase in economic inequality and a deepening of social divisions. They pose considerable challenges for policymakers, who must find ways to balance the benefits of globalisation and economic innovation with the need to protect workers and reduce inequalities.		这些综合因素--福利国家的衰落、劳动力市场的全球化以及生产和运输的变化--导致了经济不平等的加剧和社会分化的加深。这些因素给政策制定者带来了巨大的挑战，他们必须想方设法在全球化和经济创新带来的利益与保护工人和减少不平等的需要之间取得平衡。

	There is a major transformation in the structure of the modern labour market, marked by a shift to a society dominated by service sector jobs. This change has profound implications for the nature of jobs and the dynamics of the labour market. Indeed, the transition to a service-based economy brings with it a major challenge in terms of matching skills. The skills and expertise required in the industrial sector often differ from those required in the service sector. This divergence creates a gap where many workers, particularly those from industry, find themselves without the necessary qualifications to adapt easily to the new jobs being created in the service sector. This skills mismatch can lead to structural unemployment and limit the opportunities for these workers to re-enter the labour market. In addition, the current dynamics of the labour market are tending towards dualisation, with jobs increasingly concentrated at the extremes of the spectrum in terms of skills and pay. On the one hand, we are seeing the creation of highly-skilled, well-paid jobs, and on the other, an increase in low-skilled, poorly-paid jobs. This dualisation contributes to economic and social polarisation, with fewer job opportunities for the middle class.		现代劳动力市场的结构正在发生重大转变，其标志是社会正在向以服务业工作为主的方向转变。这种变化对工作的性质和劳动力市场的动态有着深远的影响。事实上，向以服务业为基础的经济转型带来了技能匹配方面的重大挑战。工业部门所需的技能和专业知识往往不同于服务部门所需的技能和专业知识。这种差异造成了一种差距，许多工人，特别是来自工业部门的工人，发现自己没有必要的资格，无法轻松适应服务部门创造的新工作。这种技能不匹配会导致结构性失业，并限制这些工人重新进入劳动力市场的机会。此外，当前劳动力市场的动态趋向于二元化，工作岗位越来越集中在技能和薪酬的两个极端。一方面，我们看到高技能、高收入的工作岗位不断涌现，另一方面，低技能、低收入的工作岗位却在增加。这种二元化造成了经济和社会的两极分化，中产阶级的就业机会越来越少。

	Migrants, in particular, can find themselves at either end of this spectrum. Some work in high-skilled, well-paid jobs, while others find themselves in low-paid, insecure employment. This situation reflects both the varying levels of skills and education of migrants and the types of opportunities available to them in host economies. The transition to a post-industrial society is therefore one of the main causes of these upheavals. This evolution has not only transformed the nature of work and the skills required, but has also reorganised the socio-economic structure of societies. To meet these challenges, it is crucial to develop appropriate education and training strategies, as well as policies to support the creation of quality jobs and facilitate the transition of workers to new sectors of activity.		尤其是移民，他们可能会处于这种两极分化的两端。一些人从事高技能、高收入的工作，而另一些人则从事低收入、无保障的工作。这种情况既反映了移民的技能和教育水平参差不齐，也反映了他们在东道国经济中所能获得的机会类型。因此，向后工业社会的过渡是造成这些动荡的主要原因之一。这一演变不仅改变了工作性质和所需技能，而且重组了社会的社会经济结构。为了应对这些挑战，必须制定适当的教育和培训战略，以及支持创造高质量工作岗位和促进工人向新的活动部门过渡的政策。

	=~~Annexes~~=		=附录=

	=~~References~~=		=参考资料=
	<references />		<references />

Arthur : /* 福利国家的顶峰与成就 */

2023-12-07T09:54:45Z

福利国家的顶峰与成就

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2023-12-07T09:53:22Z

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	The twentieth century marked a crucial turning point for the countries of the North, ushering in an era of profound social, economic and political transformation. This period was particularly marked by the rise of industrialisation and changes in the structure of the workforce, leading these nations to gradually adopt the welfare state model. This model promised to expand opportunities and strengthen protections for citizens, offering the prospect of unprecedented prosperity. However, it also brought complex challenges, from financial instability to escalating public debt, and from rising populism to growing income disparities. The twentieth century has thus proved to be an era of progress mixed with contradictions.		二十世纪是北方国家的一个重要转折点，开启了一个深刻的社会、经济和政治变革时代。这一时期，工业化的兴起和劳动力结构的变化尤为显著，促使这些国家逐步采用福利国家模式。这种模式有望扩大机会，加强对公民的保护，带来前所未有的繁荣前景。然而，它也带来了复杂的挑战，从金融不稳定到公共债务升级，从民粹主义抬头到收入差距扩大。因此，20 世纪被证明是一个进步与矛盾并存的时代。

	Although the welfare state acted as a safety net for many citizens, it also gave rise to a number of problems. These include increasing management costs, the risk of creating systemic dependency and the challenges of providing services to a heterogeneous population. This article examines these issues and discusses the strategies implemented to deal with them over the past century. Today, there is a perceptible weakening of the welfare state, reflecting its declining capacity to protect its citizens in a globalised world. This situation reflects both disillusionment with the welfare state and an increase in xenophobic and nationalist tensions, marking a significant break between different historical periods.		尽管福利国家为许多公民提供了一个安全网，但它也引发了一系列问题。这些问题包括管理成本不断增加、产生系统依赖性的风险以及向异质人口提供服务所面临的挑战。本文探讨了这些问题，并讨论了上个世纪为解决这些问题而实施的战略。如今，福利国家的力量明显减弱，这反映出它在全球化世界中保护公民的能力正在下降。这种情况既反映了人们对福利国家的失望，也反映了仇外心理和民族主义紧张局势的加剧，标志着不同历史时期之间的重大断裂。

	= ~~Understanding the welfare state: Foundations and principles~~ =		= 了解福利国家：基础与原则 =
	The historical foundations of the welfare state date back to the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, a pivotal period marked by major social and economic transformations. At that time, governments began to recognise the need to protect workers against the risks associated with their profession and the hazards of everyday life. This awareness was largely driven by the rise of industrialisation, which had led to difficult working conditions and increased risks of occupational accidents and diseases. In response to these challenges, several countries initiated pioneering social policies aimed at providing protection for workers. These included the introduction of insurance against accidents at work, illness and periods of unemployment. These policies laid the foundations for modern social security systems, which also include benefits such as retirement pensions and health insurance. These social protection systems were financed by social security contributions, generally deducted from workers' wages. This funding model reflects the principle of solidarity, where everyone contributes according to their means to support the most vulnerable members of society. These early initiatives marked a decisive turning point in the way governments approached the issue of social welfare, and laid the foundations for the welfare state as we know it today.		福利国家的历史基础可追溯到 19 世纪末 20 世纪初，这是一个以重大社会和经济变革为标志的关键时期。当时，各国政府开始认识到有必要保护工人免受与其职业相关的风险和日常生活中的危险。这种意识主要是由工业化的兴起推动的，工业化导致了艰苦的工作条件以及职业事故和职业病风险的增加。为了应对这些挑战，一些国家率先启动了旨在为工人提供保护的社会政策。这些政策包括引入工伤事故、疾病和失业保险。这些政策为现代社会保障制度奠定了基础，其中还包括退休金和医疗保险等福利。这些社会保障制度的资金来自社会保障缴款，一般从工人工资中扣除。这种筹资模式体现了团结互助的原则，即每个人都根据自己的经济能力缴费，以支持社会中最弱势的成员。这些早期举措标志着政府处理社会福利问题方式的一个决定性转折点，并为我们今天所知的福利国家奠定了基础。

	The welfare state is an essential political concept that refers to a system in which the state assumes major responsibility for guaranteeing the social well-being of its citizens. This model involves the provision of vital public services such as health and education, ensuring that these essential services are accessible to all, regardless of income or social status. In addition, the welfare state provides a range of social benefits, including unemployment benefits, family support and pensions, to support individuals and families during periods of vulnerability or change in life circumstances. One of the fundamental aims of the welfare state is to reduce social inequalities. This is often achieved through income redistribution policies, whereby the better-off contribute more to the funding of social services and benefits. At the same time, the welfare state plays a crucial role in preventing poverty, by guaranteeing a minimum standard of living for all citizens, which may include housing support measures or allowances for the most disadvantaged. The concept of the welfare state took root in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s, in response to the economic crises and social unrest of the time. After the Second World War, many countries developed more developed welfare state models, recognising the need for a more active role for the state in supporting social welfare. Since then, this model has become standard in many developed countries, although its extent and modalities vary considerably from country to country. Today, the welfare state continues to evolve in response to current demographic, economic and social challenges. It remains a central topic in contemporary political and economic debates, underlining its continuing importance in structuring modern societies.		福利国家是一个基本的政治概念，指的是国家承担主要责任保障公民社会福利的制度。这种模式涉及提供医疗和教育等重要的公共服务，确保所有人，无论其收入或社会地位如何，都能获得这些基本服务。此外，福利国家还提供一系列社会福利，包括失业救济金、家庭支助和养老金，在个人和家庭处于弱势或生活环境发生变化时提供支持。福利国家的基本目标之一是减少社会不平等。这通常是通过收入再分配政策来实现的，即富裕阶层为社会服务和福利提供更多资金。与此同时，福利国家通过保障所有公民的最低生活标准，其中可能包括住房支持措施或对最弱势群体的补贴，在预防贫困方面发挥着至关重要的作用。20 世纪 30 年代和 40 年代，为应对当时的经济危机和社会动荡，福利国家的概念在欧洲生根发芽。第二次世界大战后，许多国家认识到国家有必要在支持社会福利方面发挥更积极的作用，因而发展了更为发达的福利国家模式。自那时起，这种模式已成为许多发达国家的标准模式，尽管其程度和模式在不同国家有很大差异。如今，福利国家仍在不断发展，以应对当前的人口、经济和社会挑战。它仍然是当代政治和经济辩论中的一个核心话题，凸显了其在构建现代社会中的持续重要性。

	=~~The Jobs Crisis and its Impact on the Welfare State~~=		=就业危机及其对福利国家的影响=

	The crisis of the welfare state is indeed a subject of intense and prolonged debate, reflecting the challenges facing many social systems around the world. One of the crucial aspects of this crisis is its close relationship with the jobs crisis, which is putting considerable pressure on the mechanisms and resources of the welfare state. The jobs crisis, characterised by high levels of unemployment and increasing job insecurity, has led to an increase in the number of people relying on the services and benefits of the welfare state. This situation has highlighted some of the limitations and inadequacies of existing systems, particularly in terms of their ability to meet growing demand. Rising unemployment and job insecurity have not only increased the number of potential beneficiaries of social programmes, but have also reduced the contribution base, as fewer people are working and contributing to the financing of social benefits. Against this backdrop, governments and policymakers are faced with complex dilemmas. On the one hand, there is a compelling need to provide sufficient support to those affected by the jobs crisis. On the other hand, they must manage budgetary and economic constraints, while seeking sustainable solutions to reform and strengthen welfare state systems. This requires careful consideration of how social and economic policies can be better integrated to respond effectively to the changing needs of the population. Possible solutions could include reforms to improve the efficiency and sustainability of social protection systems, initiatives to stimulate job creation and worker training, as well as measures to reduce inequalities and support career transitions. The crisis of the welfare state, which is intrinsically linked to the jobs crisis, poses major challenges that require innovative responses adapted to the changing global socio-economic landscape.		福利国家的危机确实是一个长期激烈辩论的主题，反映了世界各地许多社会制度所面临的挑战。这场危机的一个重要方面是它与就业危机的密切关系，就业危机给福利国家的机制和资源带来了巨大压力。就业危机的特点是失业率居高不下，工作越来越不稳定，导致越来越多的人依赖福利国家提供的服务和福利。这种情况凸显了现有制度的一些局限性和不足，特别是在满足日益增长的需求方面。失业率上升和工作不稳定不仅增加了社会计划的潜在受益者人数，而且也减少了缴费基数，因为工作和为社会福利提供资金的人越来越少。在此背景下，政府和决策者面临着复杂的两难境地。一方面，迫切需要为受就业危机影响的人们提供足够的支持。另一方面，他们必须管理预算和经济限制，同时寻求改革和加强福利国家制度的可持续解决方案。这就需要认真考虑如何更好地整合社会和经济政策，以有效应对人口不断变化的需求。可能的解决方案可以包括改革，以提高社会保护制度的效率和可持续性，刺激创造就业机会和工人培训的举措，以及减少不平等和支持职业过渡的措施。福利国家的危机与就业危机有着内在的联系，它带来了重大挑战，需要根据不断变化的全球社会经济形势采取创新的应对措施。

	Historically, innovation has often been a driver of job creation, paving the way for new industries and economic activities. This dynamic has made it possible to compensate for, or even surpass, the jobs lost as a result of automation or the obsolescence of certain practices. However, in the current context, it seems that the impact of innovation on employment has become more complex. One of the major concerns is that recent innovations, particularly in technology and automation, could lead to a net destruction of jobs. These advanced technologies can replace not only manual and repetitive tasks, but also certain functions that require a higher level of skill. This trend is particularly visible in low-level jobs, where automation can replace simple tasks at a lower cost and with greater efficiency. This raises questions about the function of the individual in the economic process and how society can adapt to these changes. Workers whose jobs are threatened by automation may find themselves without immediate alternatives, exacerbating social and economic problems such as unemployment and inequality.		从历史上看，创新往往是创造就业的驱动力，为新产业和新经济活动铺平道路。这种动力可以弥补甚至超越因自动化或某些做法过时而失去的工作岗位。然而，在当前情况下，创新对就业的影响似乎变得更加复杂。其中一个主要的担忧是，最近的创新，尤其是技术和自动化方面的创新，可能会导致工作岗位的净减少。这些先进技术不仅可以取代手工和重复性工作，还可以取代某些需要较高技能的职能。这种趋势在低级工作中尤为明显，自动化可以以更低的成本和更高的效率取代简单的工作。这就提出了个人在经济进程中的功能以及社会如何适应这些变化的问题。工作受到自动化威胁的工人可能会发现自己没有直接的替代选择，从而加剧失业和不平等等社会和经济问题。

	The welfare state plays a crucial role in modern life, providing an essential safety net for those unable to support themselves. This function is all the more important in a context where levels of poverty and unemployment are tending to rise, putting the system under considerable pressure. The crisis of the welfare state in many countries is exacerbated by a growing demand for social services, which often exceeds available resources. This situation is partly fuelled by socio-economic challenges such as the rising cost of living, stagnant wages, and demographic changes such as an ageing population. In addition, recent technological advances and globalisation have led to a rapid transformation of the labour market, creating new forms of job insecurity. Faced with these challenges, governments need to rethink and reform their welfare state systems to make them more sustainable, efficient and adapted to today's needs. This could involve adjustments in the way services are financed and administered, better integration of economic and social policies to stimulate job creation, and investment in education and training to meet the demands of a changing labour market. In addition, it is also crucial to take account of the equity and social justice dimension in the reform of the welfare state. This means ensuring that services and benefits are distributed fairly and are accessible to all, particularly the most vulnerable groups in society. The crisis of the welfare state is therefore a complex issue that requires multi-dimensional solutions, taking into account current economic, social and demographic realities. The ability of governments to innovate and adapt in this area will be essential to guarantee the well-being and security of their citizens in the future.		福利国家在现代生活中发挥着至关重要的作用，它为那些无法养活自己的人提供了一个基本的安全网。在贫困和失业率呈上升趋势、福利制度面临巨大压力的情况下，这一职能显得更加重要。在许多国家，对社会服务日益增长的需求往往超过了现有资源，这加剧了福利国家的危机。造成这种局面的部分原因是社会经济方面的挑战，如生活成本上升、工资停滞不前以及人口老龄化等人口变化。此外，最近的技术进步和全球化导致劳动力市场迅速转型，造成了新形式的工作不稳定。面对这些挑战，各国政府需要重新思考并改革其福利国家体系，使其更具可持续性、更有效率并适应当今的需求。这可能涉及调整服务的筹资和管理方式，更好地整合经济和社会政策以刺激创造就业，以及投资于教育和培训以满足不断变化的劳动力市场的需求。此外，在福利国家改革中考虑公平和社会公正问题也至关重要。这意味着要确保服务和福利的公平分配，确保所有人，尤其是社会中最弱势的群体都能享受到这些服务和福利。因此，福利国家的危机是一个复杂的问题，需要结合当前的经济、社会和人口现实，采取多维度的解决方案。各国政府在这一领域的创新和适应能力对于保障其公民未来的福祉和安全至关重要。

	~~An analysis of the impact of the~~ 1973 crisis on the welfare state reveals a twofold challenge faced by this system. This period marked a crucial turning point in the management and perception of the welfare state. Historically, the welfare state was conceived and developed in response to urgent social needs, particularly in the context of economic crises and wars. However, the economic crisis of 1973 introduced unprecedented challenges, testing the robustness and sustainability of these systems. The first major impact of the crisis on the welfare state was on incomes. The employment crisis, characterised by a significant rise in unemployment, directly affected social security receipts. Given that the financing of the welfare state is largely based on contributions from workers and employers, an increase in unemployment means a reduction in the financial resources available. This situation has created a funding problem for social programmes, making them increasingly dependent on state subsidies and public debt. The second challenge concerns the costs of the welfare state. With rising unemployment, there has been an increase in the number of people dependent on social benefits, particularly unemployment benefits and income support. This increase in demand for social benefits put additional pressure on already limited resources, exacerbating the imbalance between the revenue and expenditure of the welfare state. As a result, the crisis of 1973 not only reduced the revenues of the welfare state, but also increased its expenditure, leading to a deficit in the management of these systems. This period underlined the vulnerability of the welfare state to economic fluctuations and highlighted the need for more flexible and resilient management of social policies. It also stimulated debates on reforming the welfare state, looking for ways to make it more sustainable in the face of economic and demographic challenges.		通过分析 1973 年危机对福利国家的影响，可以发现这一体系面临着双重挑战。这一时期标志着福利国家的管理和观念的一个关键转折点。从历史上看，福利国家的构想和发展是为了满足迫切的社会需求，特别是在经济危机和战争的背景下。然而，1973 年的经济危机带来了前所未有的挑战，考验着这些制度的稳健性和可持续性。危机对福利国家的第一个重大影响是对收入的影响。以失业率大幅上升为特征的就业危机直接影响了社会保障收入。鉴于福利国家的资金主要来自工人和雇主的缴款，失业率上升意味着可用的财政资源减少。这种情况给社会计划带来了资金问题，使其越来越依赖于国家补贴和公共债务。第二个挑战涉及福利国家的成本。随着失业率的上升，依赖社会福利，特别是失业救济和收入补助的人数不断增加。社会福利需求的增加给本已有限的资源带来了额外的压力，加剧了福利国家收支之间的不平衡。因此，1973 年的危机不仅减少了福利国家的收入，还增加了其支出，导致这些制度的管理出现赤字。这一时期凸显了福利国家易受经济波动影响的脆弱性，强调了对社会政策进行更灵活、更有弹性的管理的必要性。它还激发了关于改革福利国家的辩论，寻找使其在面对经济和人口挑战时更具可持续性的方法。

	=~~The Apogee and Achievements of the Welfare State~~=		=福利国家的顶峰与成就=
	In the years following the Second World War, the welfare state developed and flourished under the influence of Keynesian policy. This approach, based on the theories of economist John Maynard Keynes, argued that state intervention in the economy was necessary to regulate business cycles, stimulate demand in times of recession and reduce unemployment. Under this policy, the welfare state was seen as an essential means of promoting social welfare and equity. However, from the 1970s and especially after the economic crisis of 1973, a challenge to this model began to emerge. The political right, and later some factions of the left, gradually adopted a new orthodoxy in economic policy. This new approach emphasised fiscal discipline, deficit reduction, and the gradual withdrawal of the state from many areas of the economy. The shift to this fiscal orthodoxy marked a turning point for the welfare state. Austerity policies and budget cuts in social services became commonplace, motivated by the desire to reduce public spending and control inflation. These changes have led to a reduction in the benefits and services offered by the welfare state, as well as an increase in inequality and social tensions in many countries. Thus, the heyday of the welfare state coincided with the beginning of a period of questioning and restructuring, in which Keynesian principles gave way to a more conservative, balanced-budget approach. This transition profoundly influenced the way in which welfare systems were perceived and managed in the decades that followed.		In the years following the Second World War, the welfare state developed and flourished under the influence of Keynesian policy. This approach, based on the theories of economist John Maynard Keynes, argued that state intervention in the economy was necessary to regulate business cycles, stimulate demand in times of recession and reduce unemployment. Under this policy, the welfare state was seen as an essential means of promoting social welfare and equity. However, from the 1970s and especially after the economic crisis of 1973, a challenge to this model began to emerge. The political right, and later some factions of the left, gradually adopted a new orthodoxy in economic policy. This new approach emphasised fiscal discipline, deficit reduction, and the gradual withdrawal of the state from many areas of the economy. The shift to this fiscal orthodoxy marked a turning point for the welfare state. Austerity policies and budget cuts in social services became commonplace, motivated by the desire to reduce public spending and control inflation. These changes have led to a reduction in the benefits and services offered by the welfare state, as well as an increase in inequality and social tensions in many countries. Thus, the heyday of the welfare state coincided with the beginning of a period of questioning and restructuring, in which Keynesian principles gave way to a more conservative, balanced-budget approach. This transition profoundly influenced the way in which welfare systems were perceived and managed in the decades that followed.

Arthur : Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève][http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français] {{Translations | fr = Les défis de l’État-Providence | es = Los desafíos del Estado del bienestar | it = Le sfide del Welfare State | pt = Os Desafios... »

2023-12-07T09:52:30Z

Page créée avec « 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编<ref>[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève]</ref><ref>[http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français]</ref> {{Translations | fr = Les défis de l’État-Providence | es = Los desafíos del Estado del bienestar | it = Le sfide del Welfare State | pt = Os Desafios... »

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Arthur : /* Inequalities Since the Industrial Revolution: A Historical Context */

Arthur : /* 福利国家的顶峰与成就 */