An analytical approach to institutions in political science - Historique des versions

Arthur le 7 juillet 2023 à 09:42

2023-07-07T09:42:46Z

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	\|[[Introduction to Political Science]]		\|[[Introduction to Political Science]]
	\|[[~~La pensée sociale d'~~Émile Durkheim et Pierre Bourdieu]] ● [[~~Aux origines de la chute de la République de~~ Weimar]] ● [[~~La pensée sociale de~~ Max Weber et Vilfredo Pareto]] ● [[La notion ~~de «~~ concept ~~» en~~ sciences~~-sociales~~]] ● [[~~Histoire de la~~ discipline ~~de la~~ science ~~politique~~ : ~~théories et conceptions~~]] ● [[~~Marxisme et Structuralisme~~]] ● [[~~Fonctionnalisme et Systémisme~~]] ● [[~~Interactionnisme et Constructivisme~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de l’anthropologie politique~~]] ● [[~~Le débat des trois~~ I : ~~intérêts~~, institutions ~~et idées~~]] ● [[~~La théorie du choix rationnel et l'analyse des intérêts en~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~Approche analytique des~~ institutions en science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~L'étude des idées et idéologies dans la~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de la guerre en~~ science ~~politique~~]] ● [[~~La Guerre~~ : ~~conceptions et évolutions~~]] ● [[~~La raison d’État~~]] ● [[~~État~~, ~~souveraineté~~, ~~mondialisation, gouvernance multiniveaux~~]] ● [[~~Les théories de la~~ violence ~~en science politique~~]] ● [[Welfare State ~~et biopouvoir~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des régimes démocratiques et des processus de démocratisation~~]] ● [[~~Systèmes Électoraux~~ : ~~Mécanismes~~, ~~Enjeux et Conséquences~~]] ● [[~~Le système de gouvernement des démocraties~~]] ● [[~~Morphologie des~~ contestations]] ● [[~~L’action dans la théorie politique~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~à la politique suisse~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~au comportement politique~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~définition et~~ cycle ~~d'une politique publique~~]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~mise à l'~~agenda et formulation]] ● [[~~Analyse des Politiques Publiques~~ : ~~mise en œuvre et évaluation~~]] ● [[Introduction ~~à la sous~~-discipline ~~des~~ relations ~~internationales~~]]		\|[[Intellectual legacy of Émile Durkheim and Pierre Bourdieu in social theory]] ● [[The origins of the fall of the Weimar Republic]] ● [[Intellectual legacy of Max Weber and Vilfredo Pareto in social theory]] ● [[The notion of "concept" in social sciences]] ● [[History of the discipline of political science: theories and concepts]] ● [[Marxism and Structuralism]] ● [[Functionalism and Systemism]] ● [[Interactionism and Constructivism]] ● [[The theories of political anthropology]] ● [[The three I's debate: interests, institutions and ideas]] ● [[Rational choice theory and the analysis of interests in political science]] ● [[An analytical approach to institutions in political science]] ● [[The study of ideas and ideologies in political science]] ● [[Theories of war in political science]] ● [[The War: Concepts and Evolutions]] ● [[The reason of State]] ● [[State, sovereignty, globalization and multi-level governance]] ● [[Theories of violence in political science‎‎]] ● [[Welfare State and Biopower]] ● [[Analysis of democratic regimes and democratisation processes]] ● [[Electoral Systems: Mechanisms, Issues and Consequences]] ● [[The system of government in democracies]] ● [[Morphology of contestations]] ● [[Action in Political Theory]] ● [[Introduction to Swiss politics]] ● [[Introduction to political behaviour]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: Definition and cycle of public policy]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: agenda setting and formulation]] ● [[Public Policy Analysis: Implementation and Evaluation]] ● [[Introduction to the sub-discipline of international relations]] ● [[Introduction to Political Theory]]
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Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

2023-06-26T17:52:39Z

Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes

← Version précédente		Version du 26 juin 2023 à 19:52
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	Historical institutionalism, which looks at how institutions and their histories shape political and economic trajectories, uses concepts such as 'institutional layering' and 'institutional conversion' to explain how institutions change and transform over time.		Historical institutionalism, which looks at how institutions and their histories shape political and economic trajectories, uses concepts such as 'institutional layering' and 'institutional conversion' to explain how institutions change and transform over time.

	* ~~'''~~Institutional Layering~~'''~~: ~~Ce terme est utilisé pour décrire le processus par lequel de nouvelles~~ institutions ~~ou règles sont ajoutées aux~~ institutions ~~existantes sans nécessairement éliminer ou remplacer les anciennes~~. ~~C'est un processus de changement institutionnel plus graduel et cumulatif~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~dans un système de santé~~, l'introduction ~~d'un nouveau système d'assurance maladie publique ne supprime pas nécessairement les prestataires de soins de santé privés existants~~, ~~mais vient s'ajouter à eux~~, ~~créant ainsi une couche supplémentaire d'~~institutions.		* Institutional Layering: This term is used to describe the process by which new institutions or rules are added to existing institutions without necessarily eliminating or replacing old ones. It is a more gradual and cumulative process of institutional change. For example, in a health system, the introduction of a new public health insurance system does not necessarily eliminate existing private health care providers, but adds to them, creating an additional layer of institutions.
	* ~~'''~~Institutional Conversion~~'''~~: Ce concept ~~fait référence à un processus de changement plus~~ radical ~~dans lequel une~~ institution ~~existante est transformée en une~~ institution de nature ~~très différente~~. ~~Cela peut se produire lorsque les acteurs institutionnels réinterprètent ou réaffectent les ressources~~, ~~les rôles ou les règles d'une~~ institution ~~pour répondre à de nouvelles exigences ou opportunités~~. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~une~~ organisation ~~non gouvernementale~~ (~~ONG~~) ~~initialement créée pour fournir une aide d~~'~~urgence pourrait être "convertie" en une~~ institution ~~axée sur le développement à~~ long ~~terme~~.		* Institutional Conversion: This concept refers to a more radical process of change in which an existing institution is transformed into an institution of a very different nature. This can occur when institutional actors reinterpret or reallocate the resources, roles or rules of an institution to meet new demands or opportunities. For example, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) initially set up to provide emergency aid might be 'converted' into an institution focused on long-term development.

	~~Ces deux~~ concepts ~~mettent en lumière les différentes façons dont les~~ institutions ~~peuvent évoluer et changer en réponse à de nouvelles exigences~~, ~~opportunités ou défis~~. ~~Ils reconnaissent que le changement institutionnel n'est pas toujours un processus de remplacement complet d'une~~ institution ~~par une autre~~, ~~mais peut souvent être un processus plus graduel et complexe d'~~adaptation ~~et de~~ transformation.		Both concepts highlight the different ways in which institutions can evolve and change in response to new demands, opportunities or challenges. They recognise that institutional change is not always a process of complete replacement of one institution by another, but can often be a more gradual and complex process of adaptation and transformation.

	~~L'Institutionnalisme Historique fait la distinction entre le changement institutionnel et le rôle des~~ institutions ~~comme~~ variable ~~indépendante dans l'explication des résultats politiques et sociaux~~. ~~Dans cette approche~~, ~~les~~ institutions ~~ne sont pas seulement des~~ variables ~~indépendantes qui influencent les comportements et les résultats~~, ~~mais aussi des~~ variables ~~dépendantes qui sont elles-mêmes influencées par un certain nombre de facteurs sociaux~~, ~~politiques et économiques~~. ~~Cela signifie que l'Institutionnalisme Historique s'intéresse non seulement à la manière dont les~~ institutions ~~façonnent les comportements et les résultats~~, ~~mais aussi à la manière dont les~~ institutions ~~elles-mêmes changent et évoluent au fil du temps~~.		Historical Institutionalism distinguishes between institutional change and the role of institutions as an independent variable in explaining political and social outcomes. In this approach, institutions are not only independent variables that influence behaviour and outcomes, but also dependent variables that are themselves influenced by a number of social, political and economic factors. This means that Historical Institutionalism is concerned not only with how institutions shape behaviour and outcomes, but also with how institutions themselves change and evolve over time.

	~~Par exemple~~, ~~on peut se demander comment une~~ institution ~~spécifique~~, ~~comme un système de sécurité sociale~~, ~~a évolué au fil du temps en réponse à des changements dans l'économie ou la société~~. ~~Ce serait considérer l'~~institution ~~comme une~~ variable ~~dépendante~~. ~~D'un autre côté~~, ~~on pourrait se demander comment ce même système de sécurité sociale a influencé les comportements des individus ou les résultats en matière de santé et de bien~~-~~être~~. ~~Dans ce cas~~, l'institution ~~serait considérée comme une~~ variable ~~indépendante~~.		For example, one might ask how a specific institution, such as a social security system, has evolved over time in response to changes in the economy or society. This would consider the institution as a dependent variable. On the other hand, we could ask how the same social security system has influenced individual behaviour or outcomes in terms of health and well-being. In this case, the institution would be considered as an independent variable.

	~~Quant à l'~~institutional layering ~~(superposition institutionnelle) et l'~~institutional conversion ~~(conversion institutionnelle)~~, ~~ces~~ concepts ~~servent à expliquer les différentes façons dont les~~ institutions ~~peuvent évoluer et changer~~. ~~L'institutional~~ layering ~~fait référence à l'ajout de nouvelles~~ institutions ~~ou règles aux~~ institutions ~~existantes~~, ~~tandis que l'~~institutional conversion ~~se réfère à la~~ transformation ~~d'une~~ institution ~~existante en quelque chose de radicalement différent~~. ~~Ces deux~~ concepts ~~reconnaissent donc la possibilité et la réalité du changement institutionnel~~.		As for institutional layering and institutional conversion, these concepts are used to explain the different ways in which institutions can evolve and change. Institutional layering refers to the addition of new institutions or rules to existing institutions, while institutional conversion refers to the transformation of an existing institution into something radically different. Both concepts therefore recognise the possibility and reality of institutional change.

	~~L'institutionnalisme historique reconnaît que les~~ institutions ~~ne sont pas statiques mais peuvent évoluer et changer au fil du temps~~, ~~souvent de manière plus graduelle que radicale~~.		Historical institutionalism recognises that institutions are not static but can evolve and change over time, often more gradually than radically.

	~~Dans l'~~institutional layering, ~~de nouvelles~~ initiatives ~~ou procédures sont ajoutées à l'~~institution ~~existante sans la remplacer complètement~~. ~~Cela peut être vu comme une évolution plutôt qu'une révolution~~, ~~où les changements se font graduellement et en parallèle avec les~~ structures ~~existantes~~. ~~Dans l'~~institutional conversion, ~~les~~ institutions ~~existantes sont réorientées vers de nouvelles fonctions ou objectifs~~. ~~Les~~ structures ~~institutionnelles demeurent~~, ~~mais leurs fonctions changent~~, ~~parfois de manière significative~~. ~~En ce qui concerne la théorie des groupes d'intérêts, elle est également pertinente pour l'institutionnalisme historique~~. ~~Cette théorie met en évidence le rôle des conflits entre différents groupes sociaux et économiques dans la dynamique politique~~. ~~Selon cette théorie~~, ~~les groupes d'intérêts rivalisent pour obtenir des ressources limitées~~, ~~et les~~ institutions ~~politiques sont souvent le lieu de ces luttes~~.		In institutional layering, new initiatives or procedures are added to the existing institution without completely replacing it. This can be seen as evolution rather than revolution, where changes are made gradually and in parallel with existing structures. In institutional conversion, existing institutions are reoriented towards new functions or objectives. Institutional structures remain, but their functions change, sometimes significantly. Interest group theory is also relevant to historical institutionalism. This theory highlights the role of conflicts between different social and economic groups in political dynamics. According to this theory, interest groups compete for limited resources, and political institutions are often the site of these struggles.

	~~L'institutionnalisme historique~~, ~~toutefois~~, ~~ne se contente pas de considérer ces conflits~~, ~~mais s'interroge également sur la manière dont ils sont structurés et façonnés par les~~ institutions ~~politiques existantes~~. ~~De plus~~, ~~il s'intéresse à la manière dont ces~~ structures ~~institutionnelles varient d'un pays à l'autre et dans le temps~~. ~~Cela reflète son~~ attention ~~à la fois pour le rôle des~~ institutions ~~en tant que facteurs déterminants des comportements politiques et pour la manière dont elles sont elles-mêmes façonnées et transformées~~.		Historical institutionalism, however, not only considers these conflicts, but also asks how they are structured and shaped by existing political institutions. Moreover, it is interested in how these institutional structures vary from country to country and over time. This reflects his attention both to the role of institutions as determinants of political behaviour and to the way in which they themselves are shaped and transformed.

	= Annexes =		= Annexes =

Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

2023-06-26T17:51:58Z

Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes

← Version précédente		Version du 26 juin 2023 à 19:51
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	== Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes ==		== Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes ==
	La critique ~~de l~~'~~approche de "~~causes ~~constantes" par les institutionnalistes historiques est liée à la prise en compte du contexte~~. ~~La pensée institutionnaliste historique fait valoir que les explications générales qui s'appliquent uniformément à tous les contextes peuvent manquer des~~ nuances ~~importantes~~. ~~Pour l'institutionnalisme historique~~, ~~le contexte compte beaucoup~~. ~~Les institutions sont considérées comme façonnées par l'histoire~~, ~~et à leur tour, elles façonnent les comportements individuels et collectifs et les trajectoires de développement au sein d'un pays ou d'une région~~. ~~Par conséquent~~, ~~le contexte dans lequel une~~ institution ~~évolue est fondamental pour comprendre son rôle et son~~ impact. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~dans le domaine de la politique publique~~, ~~une politique qui fonctionne bien dans un pays peut ne pas fonctionner de la même manière dans un autre pays~~, ~~simplement à cause des différences dans le contexte institutionnel~~. ~~Cela ne signifie pas que la recherche de~~ "causes ~~constantes~~" ~~n'a pas de valeur~~. ~~Au contraire~~, ~~cette recherche peut nous aider à identifier des tendances générales et à développer des théories~~. ~~Mais les institutionnalistes historiques nous rappellent que nous devons également être attentifs au contexte spécifique et à la manière dont celui-ci peut influencer les résultats~~.		The critique of the 'constant causes' approach by historical institutionalists is linked to the consideration of context. Historical institutionalist thinking argues that general explanations that apply uniformly to all contexts may miss important nuances. For historical institutionalism, context matters a great deal. Institutions are seen as shaped by history, and in turn shape individual and collective behaviours and development trajectories within a country or region. Consequently, the context in which an institution evolves is fundamental to understanding its role and impact. For example, in the field of public policy, a policy that works well in one country may not work in the same way in another, simply because of differences in the institutional context. This does not mean that the search for "constant causes" has no value. On the contrary, it can help us to identify general trends and develop theories. But historical institutionalists remind us that we also need to pay attention to the specific context and how this can influence outcomes.

	~~Pour~~ Coser, la science ~~social~~, "on the basis of the substantive ~~enlightenment…~~ it is able to supply about the social structures in which we are enmeshed and which largely condition the course of our ~~lives”~~.<ref>Coser, Lewis A. ~~“Presidential~~ Address: Two Methods in Search of a Substance.” ''American Sociological Review'', vol. 40, no. 6, 1975, pp. ~~691–700~~. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/2094174</nowiki>.</ref> Closer ~~souligne ici l'~~importance ~~de la sociologie et des~~ sciences ~~sociales plus généralement en tant qu'outils pour nous aider à comprendre les~~ structures ~~sociales qui façonnent notre vie~~. ~~En d'autres termes~~, ~~la valeur des~~ sciences ~~sociales réside dans leur capacité à éclairer les systèmes et~~ structures ~~dans lesquels nous vivons et qui influencent grandement notre vie quotidienne~~.		For Coser, social science, "on the basis of the substantive enlightenment... it is able to supply about the social structures in which we are enmeshed and which largely condition the course of our lives."<ref>Coser, Lewis A. "Presidential Address: Two Methods in Search of a Substance." ''American Sociological Review,'' vol. 40, no. 6, 1975, pp. 691-700. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/2094174</nowiki>.</ref> Closer here emphasises the importance of sociology and the social sciences more generally as tools to help us understand the social structures that shape our lives. In other words, the value of the social sciences lies in their ability to shed light on the systems and structures in which we live and which greatly influence our daily lives.

	~~Selon cette~~ perspective, ~~les~~ sciences ~~sociales devraient nous aider à comprendre les~~ institutions, ~~les relations~~, ~~les dynamiques de pouvoir~~, ~~les idéologies~~, ~~les normes sociales, et d'autres éléments clés de nos sociétés qui influencent notre comportement~~, ~~nos opportunités et nos expériences de vie~~. ~~La sociologie~~, ~~par exemple~~, ~~peut nous aider à comprendre pourquoi certaines personnes ou certains groupes ont plus de pouvoir que d'autres~~, ~~comment les~~ structures ~~sociales contribuent à la~~ reproduction ~~de l'inégalité~~, ~~ou comment les normes sociales influencent nos comportements~~. ~~En fin de compte~~, Coser ~~suggère que la mesure de la réussite des~~ sciences ~~sociales devrait être l'éclairage substantiel qu'elles apportent à notre compréhension du monde~~ social. ~~Cela implique une~~ attention ~~constante à l'analyse de nos~~ structures ~~sociales et à la manière dont elles façonnent nos vies~~.		From this perspective, the social sciences should help us understand the institutions, relationships, power dynamics, ideologies, social norms and other key elements of our societies that influence our behaviour, opportunities and life experiences. Sociology, for example, can help us understand why some people or groups have more power than others, how social structures contribute to the reproduction of inequality, or how social norms influence our behaviour. Ultimately, Coser suggests that the measure of success for the social sciences should be the substantial insight they add to our understanding of the social world. This means paying constant attention to the analysis of our social structures and how they shape our lives.

	~~L'institutionnalisme historique~~, ~~qui s'intéresse à la manière dont les~~ institutions ~~et leurs histoires façonnent les trajectoires politiques et économiques~~, ~~utilise des~~ concepts ~~comme l~~'"institutional layering~~" (superposition institutionnelle) et l~~'"institutional conversion~~" (conversion institutionnelle) pour expliquer comment les~~ institutions ~~changent et se transforment au fil du temps~~.		Historical institutionalism, which looks at how institutions and their histories shape political and economic trajectories, uses concepts such as 'institutional layering' and 'institutional conversion' to explain how institutions change and transform over time.

	* '''Institutional Layering''': Ce terme est utilisé pour décrire le processus par lequel de nouvelles institutions ou règles sont ajoutées aux institutions existantes sans nécessairement éliminer ou remplacer les anciennes. C'est un processus de changement institutionnel plus graduel et cumulatif. Par exemple, dans un système de santé, l'introduction d'un nouveau système d'assurance maladie publique ne supprime pas nécessairement les prestataires de soins de santé privés existants, mais vient s'ajouter à eux, créant ainsi une couche supplémentaire d'institutions.		* '''Institutional Layering''': Ce terme est utilisé pour décrire le processus par lequel de nouvelles institutions ou règles sont ajoutées aux institutions existantes sans nécessairement éliminer ou remplacer les anciennes. C'est un processus de changement institutionnel plus graduel et cumulatif. Par exemple, dans un système de santé, l'introduction d'un nouveau système d'assurance maladie publique ne supprime pas nécessairement les prestataires de soins de santé privés existants, mais vient s'ajouter à eux, créant ainsi une couche supplémentaire d'institutions.

Arthur : /* Stickiness */

2023-06-26T17:51:31Z

Stickiness

Voir les modifications

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

2023-06-26T17:49:36Z

Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol

← Version précédente		Version du 26 juin 2023 à 19:49
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	=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===		=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===
	The expression "dynamics of self-reinforcing or positive feedback processes in a political system" is used by Paul Pierson and Theda Skocpol in their article "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science" published in 2002.<ref>Skocpol T, Pierson P. "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science". In: Katznelson I, Milner HV Political Science: State of the Discipline. New York: W.W. Norton; 2002. pp. 693-721.		The expression "dynamics of self-reinforcing or positive feedback processes in a political system" is used by Paul Pierson and Theda Skocpol in their article "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science" published in 2002.<ref>Skocpol T, Pierson P. "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science". In: Katznelson I, Milner HV Political Science: State of the Discipline. New York: W.W. Norton; 2002. pp. 693-721</ref>

	In this context, a self-reinforcing process refers to a situation where once an institution or policy is in place, it tends to reinforce itself through its effects and become increasingly resistant to change. This can happen for various reasons, such as the accumulation of resources, the learning and adaptation of actors, or the creation of new expectations and behavioural norms.		In this context, a self-reinforcing process refers to a situation where once an institution or policy is in place, it tends to reinforce itself through its effects and become increasingly resistant to change. This can happen for various reasons, such as the accumulation of resources, the learning and adaptation of actors, or the creation of new expectations and behavioural norms.
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	== Lock-in effect ==		== Lock-in effect ==

	~~Le "Lock~~-in effect~~", ou effet de verrouillage en français, est un~~ concept ~~qui découle de l'approche de dépendance de sentier ("Path Dependence") en~~ sciences ~~sociales~~. ~~Il fait référence à une~~ situation ~~dans laquelle~~, ~~une fois qu'un~~ certain ~~chemin ou une certaine trajectoire a été empruntée~~, ~~il devient de plus en plus difficile de revenir en arrière ou de choisir une~~ alternative. ~~Cela est dû aux coûts croissants associés au changement de trajectoire ou à l'abandon de la voie actuelle~~, ~~comme le coût de l'abandon des investissements précédents~~, ~~le coût de la formation à de nouvelles pratiques ou~~ technologies, ~~ou le coût de la résistance des acteurs bénéficiant du statu~~ quo. ~~Par exemple~~, ~~dans le domaine technologique~~, le concept de lock-in ~~est souvent utilisé pour expliquer pourquoi une technologie particulière devient dominante~~, ~~même si d'autres~~ technologies ~~peuvent être techniquement supérieures~~. ~~Une fois qu'une technologie~~ a ~~gagné une certaine part de marché~~, ~~elle peut bénéficier d'un effet de réseau qui renforce sa~~ position ~~et rend difficile le passage à une technologie concurrente~~.		The lock-in effect is a concept derived from the path dependence approach in the social sciences. It refers to a situation in which, once a certain path or trajectory has been taken, it becomes increasingly difficult to go back or choose an alternative. This is due to the increasing costs associated with changing trajectory or abandoning the current path, such as the cost of abandoning previous investments, the cost of training in new practices or technologies, or the cost of resistance from players benefiting from the status quo. For example, in the field of technology, the concept of lock-in is often used to explain why a particular technology becomes dominant, even though other technologies may be technically superior. Once a technology has gained a certain market share, it can benefit from a network effect that strengthens its position and makes it difficult to switch to a competing technology.

	~~Dans le contexte politique ou institutionnel~~, le lock-in ~~peut faire référence à la façon dont des décisions ou des politiques précédentes rendent difficile le changement d'un~~ certain ~~statu~~ quo, ~~même si ce statu~~ quo ~~est considéré comme sous~~-optimal. ~~Cela peut être dû à l'~~accumulation ~~de ressources et de pouvoir par les bénéficiaires de la~~ situation ~~actuelle~~, ~~à l'émergence de normes et de comportements qui renforcent le statu~~ quo, ~~ou à la résistance des acteurs qui craignent de perdre en cas de changement~~.		In the political or institutional context, lock-in can refer to the way in which previous decisions or policies make it difficult to change a certain status quo, even if that status quo is considered to be sub-optimal. This may be due to the accumulation of resources and power by the beneficiaries of the current situation, to the emergence of norms and behaviours that reinforce the status quo, or to the resistance of actors who fear losing out if change is made.

	~~Rebrousser chemin de ce choix~~, ~~de ce~~ path ~~choisi est aussi très difficile~~. ~~Cette idée est centrale au~~ concept ~~de dépendance de trajectoire (~~path dependence~~) en~~ sciences ~~sociales~~. ~~Une fois qu'une certaine voie est choisie dans un système~~ social, ~~politique ou économique~~, ~~il devient de plus en plus difficile de la modifier ou de la changer~~. ~~Les individus et les~~ organisations ~~s'adaptent à la trajectoire choisie~~, ~~investissant du temps~~, ~~de l'argent et des ressources pour s'y conformer~~. ~~Ils développent des habitudes~~, ~~des compétences et des attentes qui sont alignées avec cette trajectoire~~. ~~Ce processus renforce la trajectoire actuelle et rend son changement de plus en plus coûteux et difficile~~. ~~Les individus et les~~ organisations ~~sont de plus en plus réticents à abandonner la trajectoire actuelle parce qu'ils ont investi tant de ressources pour s'y conformer et parce qu'ils anticipent des coûts élevés en cas de changement~~. ~~C'est ce qu'on appelle l'effet de verrouillage ou "~~lock-in effect". ~~De plus~~, ~~les~~ institutions ~~elles-mêmes peuvent renforcer la trajectoire choisie en mettant en~~ place ~~des règles et des réglementations qui encouragent la conformité et découragent le changement~~. ~~Cela crée un cercle vicieux qui renforce encore plus la trajectoire actuelle et rend son changement encore plus difficile~~. ~~C'est pourquoi~~, ~~dans de nombreux cas~~, ~~les choix initiaux~~ - ~~même s'ils étaient contingents ou basés sur des informations imparfaites~~ - ~~peuvent avoir des conséquences à~~ long ~~terme et difficilement réversibles pour la trajectoire d'une société~~, ~~d'une économie ou d'un système politique~~.		Getting back on track with this choice, this chosen path, is also very difficult. This idea is central to the concept of path dependence in the social sciences. Once a certain path has been chosen in a social, political or economic system, it becomes increasingly difficult to modify or change it. Individuals and organisations adapt to the chosen path, investing time, money and resources to conform to it. They develop habits, skills and expectations that are aligned with this trajectory. This process reinforces the current trajectory and makes change increasingly costly and difficult. Individuals and organisations are increasingly reluctant to abandon the current trajectory because they have invested so many resources in conforming to it and because they anticipate the high costs of change. This is known as the lock-in effect. Moreover, the institutions themselves can reinforce the chosen path by putting in place rules and regulations that encourage compliance and discourage change. This creates a vicious circle that further reinforces the current trajectory and makes change even more difficult. This is why, in many cases, initial choices - even if they were contingent or based on imperfect information - can have long-term consequences that are difficult to reverse for the trajectory of a society, an economy or a political system.

	== Stickiness ==		== Stickiness ==
	~~Dans le contexte institutionnaliste historique~~, ~~le terme "~~stickiness~~" se réfère à la manière dont les~~ institutions ~~ont tendance à résister aux changements~~, ~~même en présence de nouvelles~~ conditions ~~ou de nouveaux défis~~. ~~Les institutions peuvent être "collantes" ou "persistantes" en ce sens qu~~'~~elles ont tendance à perdurer dans le temps~~, ~~et les~~ structures ~~et pratiques qu'elles mettent en~~ place ~~peuvent avoir un~~ impact ~~durable sur la société et continuer à influencer les développements futurs~~. ~~Cela ne signifie pas nécessairement que les~~ institutions ~~sont immuables ou incapables d'évoluer~~. ~~Au contraire~~, ~~les~~ institutions ~~peuvent et changent souvent avec le temps~~. ~~Cependant~~, ~~ce processus de changement peut être lent~~, ~~complexe et~~ non ~~linéaire~~, ~~et les~~ institutions ~~peuvent souvent conserver des éléments de leur forme et de leur fonction passées~~, ~~même lorsqu'elles s'adaptent à de nouvelles~~ conditions. C'~~est ce qu~~'~~on entend par le terme "stickiness"~~.		In the historical institutionalist context, the term 'stickiness' refers to the way in which institutions tend to resist change, even in the face of new conditions or challenges. Institutions can be 'sticky' or 'persistent' in the sense that they tend to endure over time, and the structures and practices they put in place can have a lasting impact on society and continue to influence future developments. This does not necessarily mean that institutions are immutable or incapable of change. On the contrary, institutions can and often do change over time. However, this process of change can be slow, complex and non-linear, and institutions can often retain elements of their past form and function, even as they adapt to new conditions. This is what is meant by the term 'stickiness'.

	~~C'est là une des idées centrales de l'institutionnalisme historique~~. ~~Les institutions ont une inertie propre qui leur permet de résister au changement~~, ~~même~~ face ~~à des changements dans les préférences des acteurs ou dans l'équilibre des pouvoirs entre eux~~. ~~Cela peut se produire pour plusieurs raisons~~ :		This is one of the central ideas of historical institutionalism. Institutions have an inertia of their own that enables them to resist change, even in the face of changes in the preferences of actors or in the balance of power between them. This can happen for several reasons:

	* '''Coûts de transition''' : Modifier une institution existante ou en créer une nouvelle peut entraîner des coûts importants, à la fois en termes de ressources matérielles et de temps. Ces coûts peuvent dissuader les acteurs de chercher à changer l'institution, même s'ils le souhaiteraient autrement.		* '''Coûts de transition''' : Modifier une institution existante ou en créer une nouvelle peut entraîner des coûts importants, à la fois en termes de ressources matérielles et de temps. Ces coûts peuvent dissuader les acteurs de chercher à changer l'institution, même s'ils le souhaiteraient autrement.

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

2023-06-26T17:48:54Z

Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol

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	=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===		=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===
	L'expression "dynamics of self-reinforcing or positive feedback processes in a political system"~~, que l'on pourrait traduire par "dynamiques de processus d'auto-renforcement ou de rétroaction positive dans un système politique", est utilisée par~~ Paul Pierson et Theda Skocpol ~~dans leur~~ article "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science" ~~publié en~~ 2002.<ref>Skocpol T, Pierson P. ~~“Historical~~ Institutionalism in Contemporary Political ~~Science”~~. In: Katznelson I, Milner HV Political Science: State of the Discipline. New York: W.W. Norton; 2002. pp. 693-721.~~</ref>~~		The expression "dynamics of self-reinforcing or positive feedback processes in a political system" is used by Paul Pierson and Theda Skocpol in their article "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science" published in 2002.<ref>Skocpol T, Pierson P. "Historical Institutionalism in Contemporary Political Science". In: Katznelson I, Milner HV Political Science: State of the Discipline. New York: W.W. Norton; 2002. pp. 693-721.

	~~Dans ce contexte~~, ~~un processus d'auto~~-~~renforcement fait référence à une~~ situation ~~où une fois qu'une~~ institution ~~ou une politique est mise en~~ place, ~~elle tend à se renforcer elle-même par ses effets et à devenir de plus en plus résistante aux changements~~. ~~Cela peut se produire pour diverses raisons~~, ~~telles que l'~~accumulation ~~de ressources~~, ~~l'apprentissage et l'~~adaptation ~~des acteurs~~, ~~ou la création de nouvelles attentes et normes comportementales~~.		In this context, a self-reinforcing process refers to a situation where once an institution or policy is in place, it tends to reinforce itself through its effects and become increasingly resistant to change. This can happen for various reasons, such as the accumulation of resources, the learning and adaptation of actors, or the creation of new expectations and behavioural norms.

	~~De manière similaire~~, ~~une rétroaction~~ positive ~~est un processus dans lequel les effets d'une~~ action ~~ou d'une décision augmentent l'ampleur ou la probabilité de futurs événements similaires~~. ~~Dans un système politique~~, ~~par exemple~~, ~~une politique qui favorise un~~ certain ~~groupe peut renforcer le pouvoir de ce groupe et augmenter la probabilité qu'il soutienne des politiques similaires à l~~'~~avenir~~.		Similarly, positive feedback is a process in which the effects of an action or decision increase the magnitude or probability of similar future events. In a political system, for example, a policy favouring a certain group may strengthen that group's power and increase the likelihood that it will support similar policies.

	~~Ces~~ concepts ~~sont centraux dans l'approche du néo~~-~~institutionnalisme historique de la~~ science ~~politique~~, ~~qui met l'accent sur le rôle des~~ institutions ~~et des processus historiques dans le façonnement des résultats politiques~~.		These concepts are central to the historical neo-institutionalism approach to political science, which emphasises the role of institutions and historical processes in shaping political outcomes.

	== Lock-in effect ==		== Lock-in effect ==

Arthur : /* James Mahoney */

2023-06-26T17:48:34Z

James Mahoney

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	=== James Mahoney ===		=== James Mahoney ===
	~~Dans l'~~article "Path Dependence in Historical Sociology" ~~publié en~~ 2000, James Mahoney ~~définit la dépendance de chemin (ou "~~path dependence") comme caractérisant des séquences historiques spécifiques dans lesquelles des événements contingents mettent en mouvement des modèles institutionnels ou des chaînes d'événements qui ont des propriétés déterministes : « Path-dependence ~~characterizes~~ specifically those historical sequences in which contingent events set in motion institutional patterns or event chains that have deterministic properties ».<ref>http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3108585?uid=3737760&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21105163650823</ref>		In the article "Path Dependence in Historical Sociology" published in 2000, James Mahoney defines path dependence as characterising specific historical sequences in which contingent events set in motion institutional patterns or event chains that have deterministic properties: "Path-dependence characterises specifically those historical sequences in which contingent events set in motion institutional patterns or event chains that have deterministic properties".<ref>http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3108585?uid=3737760&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21105163650823</ref>

	~~Selon~~ Mahoney, ~~ces événements contingents~~, ~~aussi appelés événements critiques ou charnières~~, ~~peuvent avoir des effets de grande ampleur et durables~~. ~~Ces événements déclenchent une séquence de réactions en chaîne~~, ~~entrainant la mise en place de nouvelles~~ institutions ~~ou de nouveaux modèles de comportement qui~~, ~~une fois établis~~, ~~sont difficilement modifiables~~.		According to Mahoney, these contingent events, also known as critical or pivotal events, can have large-scale and lasting effects. These events trigger a sequence of chain reactions, leading to the establishment of new institutions or new patterns of behaviour which, once established, are difficult to change.

	Le concept ~~de "~~path dependence~~" suggère donc qu~~'~~il est souvent difficile de dévier d'une trajectoire une fois qu'elle est établie~~, ~~car les coûts d'une telle déviation peuvent être prohibitifs~~. ~~De plus~~, ~~même lorsque les circonstances changent~~, ~~les~~ institutions ~~et les comportements créés par ces événements passés peuvent rester en~~ place. ~~Par conséquent~~, ~~l'histoire et la séquence spécifique d'événements qui se sont produits peuvent avoir un~~ impact ~~profond et durable sur le cours futur des événements~~.		The concept of 'path dependence' therefore suggests that it is often difficult to deviate from a path once it has been established, because the costs of doing so can be prohibitive. Moreover, even when circumstances change, the institutions and behaviours created by past events can remain in place. As a result, the history and specific sequence of events that occurred can have a profound and lasting impact on the future course of events.

	Le concept ~~de dépendance de chemin (~~path dependence~~) dans la sociologie historique comprend cette idée d'un~~ moment ~~charnière~~, ~~un événement~~ initial, ~~parfois appelé "~~point ~~de basculement" ou "~~point ~~critique"~~, ~~qui déclenche une série d'événements ultérieurs~~. Ce moment ~~charnière peut sembler mineur ou non significatif à l'époque~~, ~~mais il~~ a ~~le potentiel de déclencher une~~ cascade ~~d'événements qui se renforcent mutuellement~~. ~~Une fois ce processus déclenché~~, ~~il peut devenir auto~~-~~renforçant et difficile à inverser~~, ~~même si les~~ conditions ~~originales qui ont conduit à l'événement~~ initial ~~ont changé~~. ~~C'est ce qui est souvent appelé~~ "~~verrouillage" (~~lock-in~~) dans la théorie de la dépendance de chemin~~. ~~C'est un mécanisme par lequel une certaine~~ structure~~, une fois établie, reste en~~ place ~~et influence le cours futur des événements~~, ~~même si cette~~ structure ~~n'est plus optimale ou efficace~~. Le concept ~~de dépendance de chemin met donc l'accent sur l'~~importance ~~du temps et de la séquence des événements dans la détermination des trajectoires institutionnelles et sociales~~.		The concept of path dependence in historical sociology includes this idea of a pivotal moment, an initial event, sometimes called a 'tipping point' or 'critical point', which triggers a series of subsequent events. This pivotal moment may seem minor or insignificant at the time, but it can potentially trigger a cascade of mutually reinforcing events. Once this process has been triggered, it can become self-reinforcing and difficult to reverse, even if the original conditions that led to the initial event have changed. This is what is often referred to as "lock-in" in path dependency theory. Once established, it is a mechanism by which a certain structure remains in place and influences the future course of events, even if that structure is no longer optimal or efficient. The concept of path dependence therefore emphasises the importance of time and the sequence of events in determining institutional and social trajectories.

	=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===		=== Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol ===

Arthur : /* William Sewell */

2023-06-26T17:47:51Z

William Sewell

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	=== William Sewell ===		=== William Sewell ===
	~~Dans son~~ article "Three Temporalities: Toward an Eventful Sociology", ~~l'auteur~~ William H. Sewell Jr. ~~discute l'idée de la dépendance au chemin ("~~path dependence").<ref>Sewell, "Three Temporalities," 262-263. For scholars who basically adopt this definition, see Barbara Geddes, "Paradigms and Sand Castles in Comparative Politics of Developing Areas," in William Crotty, editor. Politic~al Sc~ienc~e: Looking to the Future, vol. 2. (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press 1991). 59; Isaac. "Transforming Localities," 7: Terry Lynn Karl, Tl~eParadox of'Plentj~: Oil Booin.\ and Petro- state^ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 11: Jill Quadagno and Stan J. Knapp. "Have Historical Sociologists Forsaken Theory?: Thoughts on the HistoryITheory Relationship." Sociologicirl Met11od.t irnd Rc~mrc,ll 20 (1992): 481--507; Somers. "We're No Angels." 768-769: Tilly. "Future History." 710.</ref> ~~Cette~~ notion ~~suggère que les décisions~~, ~~événements ou résultats passés ont un~~ impact ~~significatif sur les décisions~~, ~~événements ou résultats futurs~~.		In his article "Three Temporalities: Toward an Eventful Sociology", author William H. Sewell Jr. discusses the idea of path dependence.<ref>Sewell, "Three Temporalities," 262-263. For scholars who basically adopt this definition, see Barbara Geddes, "Paradigms and Sand Castles in Comparative Politics of Developing Areas," in William Crotty, editor. Politic~al Sc~ienc~e: Looking to the Future, vol. 2 (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press 1991). 59; Isaac. "Transforming Localities," 7: Terry Lynn Karl, Tl~eParadox of'Plentj~: Oil Booin.\ and Petro- state^ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 11: Jill Quadagno and Stan J. Knapp. "Have Historical Sociologists Forsaken Theory?: Thoughts on the HistoryITheory Relationship." Sociologicirl Met11od.t irnd Rc~mrc,ll 20 (1992): 481--507; Somers. "We're No Angels." 768-769: Tilly. "Future History." 710.</ref> This notion suggests that past decisions, events or outcomes significantly impact future decisions, events or outcomes.

	~~Selon~~ Sewell, ~~cette dépendance au chemin n'est pas simplement une question d'événements passés qui limitent les~~ options ~~futures~~. ~~Il met en évidence l'idée que ces dépendances historiques peuvent également ouvrir de nouvelles possibilités et chemins d'~~action ~~qui n'étaient pas envisagés auparavant~~. ~~De plus~~, ~~ces dépendances au chemin ne sont pas simplement linéaires ou déterministes~~. ~~Elles sont plutôt multidimensionnelles et complexes~~, ~~avec de multiples chemins possibles qui peuvent être suivis à tout moment donné~~.		According to Sewell, this path dependence is not simply a matter of past events limiting future options. He highlights the idea that these historical dependencies can also open up new possibilities and paths of action that were not previously considered. Moreover, these path dependencies are not simply linear or deterministic. Rather, they are multidimensional and complex, with multiple possible paths that can be followed at any given time.

	~~L'idée clé de la dépendance au chemin est que les~~ structures ~~et les événements historiques importent~~. ~~Ils façonnent les trajectoires futures de façon significative~~. ~~Les décisions prises dans le passé continuent d'affecter les~~ options ~~disponibles dans le présent~~, ~~et ces décisions passées peuvent également avoir un~~ impact ~~sur l'avenir de façon inattendue~~. ~~C'est pourquoi il est~~ important ~~de prendre en compte les processus historiques lors de l'étude des phénomènes sociaux~~.		The key idea of path dependency is that historical structures and events matter. They shape future trajectories in significant ways. Decisions taken in the past continue to affect the options available in the present, and those past decisions can also impact the future unexpectedly. This is why it is important to consider historical processes when studying social phenomena.

	=== James Mahoney ===		=== James Mahoney ===

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */

2023-06-26T17:47:21Z

Unanticipated - unintended consequences

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	Neo-institutionalism has brought a new perspective to the way institutions are studied:		Neo-institutionalism has brought a new perspective to the way institutions are studied:
	* '''Importance of institutions''': Neo-institutionalism considers that institutions play a crucial role in structuring social, political and economic life. They are not simply arenas in which social and political actors pursue their interests, but structures that shape and influence these interests.		* '''Importance of institutions''': Neo-institutionalism considers that institutions play a crucial role in structuring social, political and economic life. They are not simply arenas in which social and political actors pursue their interests, but structures that shape and influence these interests.
	* '''Autonomy of institutions'': Neo-institutionalists argue that institutions have a degree of autonomy from social, economic and political forces. In other words, they can influence behaviour and outcomes independently of the interests of the actors within them.		* '''Autonomy of institutions''': Neo-institutionalists argue that institutions have a degree of autonomy from social, economic and political forces. In other words, they can influence behaviour and outcomes independently of the interests of the actors within them.
	* '''Formal and informal institutions''': Neo-institutionalism has broadened the scope of research to include not only formal institutions (such as governments, laws and formal organisations) but also informal institutions (such as social norms, customs and unwritten practices). This reflects the recognition that behaviour is influenced by a wider range of structures than those formally codified.		* '''Formal and informal institutions''': Neo-institutionalism has broadened the scope of research to include not only formal institutions (such as governments, laws and formal organisations) but also informal institutions (such as social norms, customs and unwritten practices). This reflects the recognition that behaviour is influenced by a wider range of structures than those formally codified.
	* The '''role of time and history''': Some neo-institutionalists, notably those of historical institutionalism, emphasise the role of time and history in the formation of institutions. They argue that decisions taken at one point in time can have lasting effects and can shape the future trajectory of an institution, a phenomenon often referred to as 'path dependence'.		* The '''role of time and history''': Some neo-institutionalists, notably those of historical institutionalism, emphasise the role of time and history in the formation of institutions. They argue that decisions taken at one point in time can have lasting effects and can shape the future trajectory of an institution, a phenomenon often referred to as 'path dependence'.
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	Institutionalism, including neo-institutionalism, focuses more on the role of institutions as structures that determine the behaviour of actors and shape social and political outcomes. It is clearly distinct from behaviourism in several respects:		Institutionalism, including neo-institutionalism, focuses more on the role of institutions as structures that determine the behaviour of actors and shape social and political outcomes. It is clearly distinct from behaviourism in several respects:

	* In contrast to behaviourism, which focuses on individual behaviour and its influence on social and political systems, institutionalism emphasises the role of institutions. Institutions are seen as having an influence on the behaviour of individuals and groups, as well as on political and social outcomes.		* The '''role of institutions''': In contrast to behaviourism, which focuses on individual behaviour and its influence on social and political systems, institutionalism emphasises the role of institutions. Institutions are seen as having an influence on the behaviour of individuals and groups, as well as on political and social outcomes.
	* '''Structure and agency''': While behaviourism tends to focus on agency - the actions and decisions of individuals - institutionalism considers the structure of institutions to be paramount. Institutions are seen as defining the rules of the game and limiting the options available to actors.		* '''Structure and agency''': While behaviourism tends to focus on agency - the actions and decisions of individuals - institutionalism considers the structure of institutions to be paramount. Institutions are seen as defining the rules of the game and limiting the options available to actors.
	* '''Stability versus change''': Behaviourism often focuses on change, seeking to explain how and why individual behaviour changes. Institutionalism, on the other hand, often focuses on stability, showing how institutions persist over time, even in the absence of popular support or economic performance.		* '''Stability versus change''': Behaviourism often focuses on change, seeking to explain how and why individual behaviour changes. Institutionalism, on the other hand, often focuses on stability, showing how institutions persist over time, even in the absence of popular support or economic performance.
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	== Path dependence ==		== Path dependence ==
	L'~~idée de "~~path dependence~~" est un~~ concept ~~central dans l'institutionnalisme historique~~. ~~Ce terme fait référence à l'idée que les décisions passées et les~~ institutions ~~existantes peuvent orienter et limiter les choix futurs~~. ~~C'est parce que~~, ~~une fois qu'une~~ institution ~~ou une politique a été mise en~~ place, ~~elle crée souvent des attentes~~, ~~des normes et des investissements qui rendent le changement coûteux et difficile~~. ~~Dans le contexte des~~ institutions ~~politiques et économiques~~, ~~cela signifie que même si une~~ institution ~~n'est plus optimale ou si elle ne sert plus les intérêts qu'elle était censée servir à l'origine~~, ~~elle peut perdurer simplement parce qu'il est difficile de changer le statu~~ quo. ~~Les acteurs politiques~~, ~~économiques et sociaux peuvent s'adapter à ces~~ institutions ~~et construire leurs stratégies et leurs attentes autour d'elles~~, ~~rendant tout changement potentiellement perturbateur et coûteux~~.		The idea of 'path dependence' is a central concept in historical institutionalism. It refers to the idea that past decisions and existing institutions can shape and constrain future choices. This is because, once an institution or policy has been put in place, it often creates expectations, norms and investments that make change costly and difficult. In the context of political and economic institutions, this means that even if an institution is no longer optimal, or no longer serves the interests it was originally intended to serve, it may persist simply because it is difficult to change the status quo. Political, economic and social actors can adapt to these institutions and build their strategies and expectations around them, making any change potentially disruptive and costly.

	L'~~exemple de la sécurité sociale aux États-Unis illustre bien le concept de "~~path dependence~~" en~~ science ~~politique~~.		The example of social security in the United States provides a good illustration of the concept of 'path dependence' in political science.

	~~Aux États-Unis~~, ~~le système de sécurité sociale~~ a ~~été mis en place dans les années 1930 en réponse à la Grande Dépression. Il~~ a ~~été conçu pour fournir un filet de sécurité pour les travailleurs âgés, en leur fournissant un revenu de retraite de base~~. ~~Cependant~~, ~~le système~~ a ~~été conçu de telle sorte qu'il dépendait largement des cotisations des travailleurs actuels pour financer les prestations des retraités actuels~~. ~~Au fil du temps~~, ~~la démographie des États-Unis a changé~~, ~~avec une~~ proportion ~~croissante de personnes âgées par rapport aux travailleurs plus jeunes~~. ~~Cela a conduit à des pressions financières croissantes sur le système de sécurité sociale~~. ~~Cependant~~, ~~malgré les défis auxquels le système est confronté~~, ~~il est extrêmement difficile de le réformer ou de le changer de manière significative~~. ~~Cela est dû en partie à la dépendance des bénéficiaires actuels et futurs à l'égard de la sécurité sociale~~, ~~mais aussi à la complexité du système lui-même~~. ~~Les tentatives de réforme ont souvent rencontré une~~ opposition ~~politique et publique considérable~~. ~~Ainsi, bien que le système de sécurité sociale des États-Unis puisse ne plus être le plus efficace ou le plus équitable compte tenu des réalités démographiques et économiques actuelles~~, ~~il persiste en grande partie à cause de la "~~path dependence". ~~Les décisions passées ont créé une~~ institution ~~qui est maintenant difficile à changer~~, ~~malgré les problèmes évidents qu'elle présente~~.		In the United States, the social security system was introduced in the 1930s in response to the Great Depression. It was designed to provide a safety net for older workers by providing a basic retirement income. However, the system was designed in such a way that it relied heavily on contributions from current workers to fund the benefits of current retirees. Over time, the demographics of the United States have changed, with an increasing proportion of older people compared to younger workers. This has led to increasing financial pressures on the social security system. However, despite the challenges facing the system, it is extremely difficult to reform or change it significantly. This is due in part to the dependence of current and future beneficiaries on social security, but also to the complexity of the system itself. Attempts at reform have often met with considerable political and public opposition. So while the US social security system may no longer be the most efficient or equitable given current demographic and economic realities, it persists largely because of path dependence. Past decisions have created an institution that is now difficult to change, despite its obvious problems.

	=== William Sewell ===		=== William Sewell ===

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */

2023-06-26T17:45:42Z

Unanticipated - unintended consequences

Voir les modifications

An analytical approach to institutions in political science - Historique des versions

Arthur le 7 juillet 2023 à 09:42

Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

Arthur : /* Stickiness */

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

Arthur : /* James Mahoney */

Arthur : /* William Sewell */

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */

Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

Arthur : /* Criticism of the explanatory principle of constant causes */

Arthur : /* Stickiness */

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

Arthur : /* Paul Pierson & Theda Skocpol */

Arthur : /* James Mahoney */

Arthur : /* William Sewell */

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */

Arthur : /* Unanticipated - unintended consequences */