Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution - Historique des versions

Arthur le 29 novembre 2023 à 19:43

2023-11-29T19:43:42Z

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	{{Translations		{{Translations
	\| en = ~~Origins and~~ causes ~~of the English industrial revolution~~		\| fr = Origines et causes de la révolution industrielle anglaise
	\| es = Orígenes y causas de la revolución industrial inglesa		\| es = Orígenes y causas de la revolución industrial inglesa
	\| it = Origini e cause della rivoluzione industriale inglese		\| it = Origini e cause della rivoluzione industriale inglese

Arthur : /* The enclosure process */

2023-11-29T10:48:18Z

The enclosure process

← Version précédente		Version du 29 novembre 2023 à 12:48
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	[[Image:Enclosure.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150px\|A deed of enclosure dating from 1793.]]		[[Image:Enclosure.jpg\|thumb\|right\|150px\|A deed of enclosure dating from 1793.]]

	~~Le phénomène connu sous le nom d'~~enclosures ~~en Angleterre~~ a ~~été particulièrement marqué aux 18e et 19e siècles et a eu des conséquences profondes sur la~~ structure ~~sociale et économique de la campagne anglaise~~. ~~Le mouvement des enclosures impliquait le regroupement de terres communes~~, ~~auparavant ouvertes à tous les membres d'une paroisse pour la pâture et la culture~~, ~~en propriétés privées distinctes~~. ~~Les nobles et les grands propriétaires terriens~~, ~~profitant souvent des lois sur les enclosures~~, ~~ont « clôturé » ces terres~~, ~~établissant leur droit exclusif de propriété et les utilisant pour une agriculture plus~~ intensive ~~et commerciale~~. ~~Ce processus a entraîné l'~~expropriation ~~de nombreux petits paysans qui ont perdu non seulement leur terre~~, ~~mais aussi leur moyen traditionnel de subsistance~~. ~~Les conséquences sociales de ce mouvement ont été dramatiques~~. ~~Beaucoup de ces paysans sans terre~~, ~~privés de leur moyen de subsistance traditionnel~~, ~~ont été forcés de migrer vers les villes en quête d'emploi~~, ~~alimentant ainsi la main-d'œuvre nécessaire à la révolution industrielle naissante~~. ~~L'afflux de ces travailleurs dans les zones urbaines a eu pour effet d'augmenter considérablement l'offre de main-d'œuvre~~, ~~permettant aux propriétaires d'usines d'imposer des salaires bas, étant donné que la demande pour des emplois excédait largement l'offre~~. ~~Cela a également conduit à des~~ conditions ~~de travail précaires et à la création de bidonvilles urbains où les travailleurs vivaient dans des~~ conditions ~~souvent misérables~~. ~~Le prince de Galles~~, ~~et plus tard d'autres membres de la famille royale britannique~~, ~~ont accumulé de grandes étendues de terres pendant cette période~~, ~~qui sont devenues une partie significative de la richesse de la Couronne~~. ~~Ces terres~~, ~~gérées aujourd'hui par le Duché de Cornouailles et le Duché de~~ Lancaster, ~~sont toujours des~~ sources ~~importantes de revenus pour la famille royale~~. L'enclosure ~~des terres communes~~ a ~~été un facteur clé dans l'accélération de l'~~industrialisation, ~~car elle a libéré de la main-d'œuvre pour les usines~~, ~~a changé les pratiques agricoles et a transformé la~~ structure ~~sociale de la campagne britannique~~.		The phenomenon known as enclosures in England was particularly marked in the 18th and 19th centuries and had a profound effect on the social and economic structure of the English countryside. The enclosure movement involved the consolidation of common land, previously open to all members of a parish for grazing and cultivation, into separate private holdings. The nobility and large landowners, often taking advantage of the Enclosure Acts, 'enclosed' these lands, establishing their exclusive right of ownership and using them for more intensive and commercial farming. This process led to the expropriation of many small farmers, who lost not only their land but also their traditional means of subsistence. The social consequences of this movement were dramatic. Many of these landless peasants, deprived of their traditional means of subsistence, were forced to migrate to the cities in search of work, thus supplying the workforce needed for the nascent industrial revolution. The influx of these workers into urban areas greatly increased the supply of labour, allowing factory owners to charge low wages as demand for jobs far exceeded supply. This also led to precarious working conditions and the creation of urban slums where workers often lived in miserable conditions. The Prince of Wales, and later other members of the British Royal Family, accumulated large tracts of land during this period, which became a significant part of the Crown's wealth. These lands, managed today by the Duchy of Cornwall and the Duchy of Lancaster, are still important sources of income for the Royal Family. The enclosure of common land was a key factor in the acceleration of industrialisation, as it freed up labour for factories, changed farming practices and transformed the social structure of the British countryside.

	Will Kymlicka ~~dans son ouvrage ''Les théories de la justice~~ : ~~une introduction'' publié en 1999 mentionne que~~ "~~Dans l'Angleterre du XVIIème siècle~~, ~~on assistait à un mouvement pour l'~~enclosure (l'appropriation ~~privée~~) ~~de terres jadis détenues par la communauté et~~ accessible ~~à tous~~. ~~Sur ces terres~~ (~~les~~ "~~communs~~"), ~~tout à chacun pouvait exercer un droit de pâture~~, ~~de collecte du bois~~, etc. L'appropriation ~~privée des communs entraîna la fortune de certains et la perte de ressource des autres~~, ~~désormais privés de moyens de subsistance~~". ~~La pratique des enclosures~~, ~~qui s'est accélérée pendant la révolution agricole qui précédait la révolution industrielle~~, ~~a entraîné de profonds changements dans les~~ structures ~~de propriété et dans l'~~organisation ~~de la société anglaise de l'époque~~. ~~Les~~ "~~communs~~" ~~étaient des terres sur lesquelles les membres d'une communauté pouvaient se reposer pour des ressources essentielles~~. ~~Lorsque ces terres ont été encloses et transformées en propriété privée~~, ~~cela a souvent bénéficié aux personnes en position de pouvoir ou de richesse~~, ~~qui pouvaient se permettre d'acheter et de clôturer les terres~~, ~~tandis que les petits paysans et les travailleurs ruraux qui dépendaient de ces espaces communaux pour leur survie se sont retrouvés sans ressources~~. ~~Les effets des~~ enclosures ~~ne se limitaient pas seulement à la privation de ressources pour les pauvres~~. ~~Cela a également modifié la dynamique du travail en Angleterre~~, ~~en forçant de nombreuses personnes à devenir des ouvriers agricoles salariés pour les nouveaux propriétaires terriens ou à se déplacer vers les villes~~, ~~devenant ainsi la main-d'œuvre pour les usines et les entreprises de l'ère industrielle~~. ~~Ce déplacement~~ a ~~également joué un rôle dans la création d'une classe ouvrière urbaine~~, ~~et par~~ extension, ~~dans les changements politiques et sociaux qui ont accompagné la révolution industrielle~~.		Will Kymlicka, in his 1999 book Theories of Justice: An Introduction, notes that "In seventeenth-century England, there was a movement towards the enclosure (private appropriation) of land formerly held by the community and accessible to all. On these lands (the "commons"), anyone could exercise the right to graze, gather wood, etc. Private appropriation of the commons led to the fortunes of some and the loss of resources of others, who were now deprived of any means of subsistence". The practice of enclosure, which accelerated during the agricultural revolution that preceded the industrial revolution, brought about profound changes in the structures of property ownership and in the organisation of English society at the time. The "commons" were lands on which members of a community could rely for essential resources. When these lands were enclosed and turned into private property, it often benefited those in positions of power or wealth, who could afford to buy and enclose the land, while the small peasants and rural workers who depended on these commons for their survival were left destitute. The effects of enclosures were not limited to the deprivation of resources for the poor. It also changed the dynamics of work in England, forcing many people to become agricultural wage labourers for the new landowners or to move to the cities, becoming the workforce for the factories and businesses of the industrial age. This displacement also played a role in the creation of an urban working class, and by extension, in the political and social changes that accompanied the Industrial Revolution.

	=Annexes=		=Annexes=

Arthur : /* Caractère inéluctable de la révolution industrielle ? */

2023-11-29T10:46:44Z

Caractère inéluctable de la révolution industrielle ?

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Arthur : /* Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe? */

2023-11-29T10:37:08Z

Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe?

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Arthur : /* Major social changes in 18th-century Britain */

2023-11-29T10:35:02Z

Major social changes in 18th-century Britain

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Arthur : /* Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England */

2023-11-29T10:34:01Z

Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England

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Arthur : /* Le factory system */

2023-11-29T10:32:27Z

Le factory system

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Arthur : /* The concept of innovation */

2023-11-29T10:31:28Z

The concept of innovation

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	In the context of the Industrial Revolution, innovation is a key concept. Many inventions, such as James Watt's improved steam engine or James Hargreaves' "Spinning Jenny", met specific needs (such as the need to pump water from mines more efficiently or to produce textiles more quickly) and were adopted on a large scale. These inventions became innovations because they were widely used, integrated into production processes, and had a significant impact on the economy and society as a whole.		In the context of the Industrial Revolution, innovation is a key concept. Many inventions, such as James Watt's improved steam engine or James Hargreaves' "Spinning Jenny", met specific needs (such as the need to pump water from mines more efficiently or to produce textiles more quickly) and were adopted on a large scale. These inventions became innovations because they were widely used, integrated into production processes, and had a significant impact on the economy and society as a whole.

	== The relationship between invention and industrialisation		== The relationship between invention and industrialisation ==

	Before the Industrial Revolution, the increase in demand for manufactured goods led to a shortage of labour in infant industries. This had the effect of increasing the cost of labour, since workers, who were more in demand, had greater bargaining power over their wages. The direct consequence was higher production costs and, consequently, higher prices for consumers. Faced with this situation, entrepreneurs and industrialists had a strong economic interest in finding ways to produce more efficiently. This stimulated innovation and the search for new technologies that could reduce dependence on labour, cut costs and increase production to meet growing demand. Inventions such as the power loom and the steam engine became major innovations in that they were adopted on a large scale, enabling mass production at lower cost. The mechanisation of production processes also enabled goods to be produced in greater quantities and at lower prices, making them accessible to a wider segment of the population, fuelling a virtuous circle of economic growth. This period saw a paradigm shift in which human labour was no longer the main driver of production. Instead, efficiency was achieved through the use of machines, leading to a significant change in the social and economic structures of the time.		Before the Industrial Revolution, the increase in demand for manufactured goods led to a shortage of labour in infant industries. This had the effect of increasing the cost of labour, since workers, who were more in demand, had greater bargaining power over their wages. The direct consequence was higher production costs and, consequently, higher prices for consumers. Faced with this situation, entrepreneurs and industrialists had a strong economic interest in finding ways to produce more efficiently. This stimulated innovation and the search for new technologies that could reduce dependence on labour, cut costs and increase production to meet growing demand. Inventions such as the power loom and the steam engine became major innovations in that they were adopted on a large scale, enabling mass production at lower cost. The mechanisation of production processes also enabled goods to be produced in greater quantities and at lower prices, making them accessible to a wider segment of the population, fuelling a virtuous circle of economic growth. This period saw a paradigm shift in which human labour was no longer the main driver of production. Instead, efficiency was achieved through the use of machines, leading to a significant change in the social and economic structures of the time.

Arthur : /* Le rôle de l’innovation */

2023-11-29T10:31:16Z

Le rôle de l’innovation

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Arthur : /* The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy */

2023-11-29T10:30:07Z

The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy

← Version précédente		Version du 29 novembre 2023 à 12:30
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	=The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy=		=The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy=

	[[Fichier:Spinning jenny.jpg\|200px\|vignette\|right\|The Spinning-jenny by James Hargreaves, 1765, museum in Wuppertal, Germany.]]La révolution du secteur textile est emblématique de la transformation industrielle qui s’est déroulée en Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle, illustrant parfaitement l’évolution technologique et ses répercussions économiques. La "navette volante", inventée en 1733 par John Kay, fut une amélioration significative dans l'industrie du tissage. Elle a permis de doubler la vitesse de tissage en permettant à la navette de traverser le métier à tisser à grande vitesse et sans intervention manuelle directe. Cette innovation a entraîné une augmentation de la demande en fil, car les métiers à tisser pouvaient désormais produire du tissu beaucoup plus rapidement qu’auparavant. Face à cette augmentation de la demande de fil, James Hargreaves a inventé en 1764 la "Spinning Jenny", un métier à filer révolutionnaire capable de filer plusieurs fils en même temps, surpassant largement la production des fileuses traditionnelles. Cependant, cette invention a créé un déséquilibre entre la capacité de production de fil et celle de tissage, la production de fil dépassant ce que les tisserands pouvaient transformer en tissu. Pour répondre à ce surplus de fil et au besoin d’accroître la productivité du tissage, le métier à tisser mécanique fut développé. En 1785, Edmund Cartwright brevète le premier métier à tisser mécanique qui, bien qu'imparfait au départ, posa les fondations pour les améliorations futures. Il a été suivi par l'adoption de la puissance à vapeur pour les métiers à tisser dans les années 1780, ce qui a permis une utilisation encore plus efficace de la production de fil des "Spinning Jenny" et a mené à un tissage mécanisé à grande échelle. Ces innovations ont non seulement accru la productivité, mais ont également transformé la structure de l’industrie textile, favorisant le passage d'une production artisanale à une production industrielle. Elles ont également eu des conséquences sociales significatives, telles que la concentration des travailleurs dans les usines et une réduction de la main-d'œuvre nécessaire, préfigurant les changements sociaux et économiques profonds apportés par la Révolution industrielle.		[[Fichier:Spinning jenny.jpg\|200px\|vignette\|right\|The Spinning-jenny by James Hargreaves, 1765, museum in Wuppertal, Germany.]]

	~~La combinaison sidérurgie-charbonnage~~ a ~~été l’un des piliers de la Révolution industrielle~~, ~~avec le secteur textile~~, ~~en forgeant littéralement les outils et les matériaux nécessaires à la construction de l'ère industrielle~~. L'innovation ~~apportée par Abraham Darby en 1709 est un tournant décisif~~. ~~En utilisant le coke, issu de la houille (charbon minéral)~~, ~~au lieu du charbon de bois pour la fusion du minerai de fer~~, ~~Darby~~ a ~~non seulement répondu à la crise énergétique provoquée par la déforestation~~, ~~mais a aussi posé les bases d'une production sidérurgique beaucoup plus importante~~. ~~Le charbon de bois était limité non seulement par la quantité de bois disponible~~, mais aussi par son efficacité énergétique. Le procédé de Darby a permis de produire du fer en plus grande quantité et à moindre coût, car le coke pouvait atteindre des températures plus élevées et plus constantes, ~~nécessaires à la~~ production ~~de fer~~. ~~De plus, les gisements de houille étaient abondants en Angleterre~~, ~~ce qui garantissait un approvisionnement stable et économique~~. ~~Cette avancée a eu des répercussions immenses~~, ~~car le fer était essentiel à de nombreuses industries de l'époque~~, ~~y compris la construction de machines~~, ~~de navires~~, ~~de bâtiments~~, ~~et plus tard~~, ~~de chemins de fer. De plus~~, ~~le coke devenant le combustible privilégié pour la~~ production ~~de fer~~, ~~cela~~ a ~~stimulé l'exploitation des mines de charbon~~, renforçant ainsi la synergie entre la sidérurgie et le charbonnage. Cette dynamique a créé un cercle vertueux d'innovation et de production qui a alimenté l'expansion industrielle de la Grande-Bretagne et a contribué à asseoir sa domination économique mondiale pendant le XIXe siècle.		The textile revolution is emblematic of the industrial transformation that took place in England in the 18th century, providing a perfect illustration of technological change and its economic repercussions. The "flying shuttle", invented in 1733 by John Kay, was a significant improvement in the weaving industry. It doubled the speed of weaving by allowing the shuttle to traverse the loom at high speed without direct manual intervention. This innovation led to an increase in demand for yarn, as looms could now produce fabric much faster than before. In response to this increase in demand for yarn, in 1764 James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny, a revolutionary spinning machine capable of spinning several threads at the same time, far surpassing the output of traditional spinning machines. However, this invention created an imbalance between yarn production and weaving capacity, with yarn production exceeding what weavers could turn into fabric. In response to this surplus of yarn and the need to increase weaving productivity, the mechanical loom was developed. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright patented the first mechanical loom, which, although initially imperfect, laid the foundations for future improvements. This was followed by the adoption of steam power for looms in the 1780s, which enabled even more efficient use to be made of the yarn produced by the "Spinning Jenny" and led to large-scale mechanised weaving. These innovations not only increased productivity, but also transformed the structure of the textile industry, encouraging the transition from cottage industry to industrial production. They also had significant social consequences, such as the concentration of workers in factories and a reduction in the workforce required, foreshadowing the profound social and economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

	~~L’utilisation de l’énergie mécanique~~ via ~~la machine à vapeur est un autre~~ aspect ~~fondamental de la Révolution industrielle~~. L'adaptation ~~de cette technologie dans divers secteurs industriels~~ a ~~permis un bond en avant dans la~~ production ~~et l'efficacité~~. ~~La machine à vapeur~~, ~~dans sa forme~~ primitive, ~~a été développée au début du XVIIIe siècle~~, ~~avec des inventeurs comme~~ Thomas Newcomen ~~qui~~, en 1712, a ~~créé une machine à vapeur destinée à pomper l'eau hors des~~ mines ~~de charbon~~. ~~Bien que cette~~ machine ~~ait été un progrès significatif~~, ~~elle était encore inefficace et coûteuse à exploiter~~. ~~Le réel progrès est venu avec~~ James Watt, ~~qui, dans les années 1760 et 1770, a apporté des améliorations décisives à la machine à vapeur de~~ Newcomen. Il a ~~notamment inventé un condenseur séparé qui réduisait considérablement la consommation de charbon et augmentait l'efficacité~~. Watt ~~a ensuite développé une machine qui convertissait le mouvement de va-et-vient en~~ rotation, ~~ce qui la rendait~~ applicable ~~à de nombreux processus industriels~~, ~~bien au-delà du~~ simple ~~pompage de l'eau~~. ~~À partir de~~ 1780, ~~avec les améliorations continues de~~ Watt ~~et d’autres~~, ~~la machine à vapeur est devenue le moteur de l'industrie~~. ~~Elle a permis de cadencer le travail des~~ machines, ~~d'où une meilleure prévisibilité et régularité de la~~ production. ~~L’ouvrier pouvait désormais ajuster la~~ machine ~~pour optimiser son temps de travail~~, ~~et les~~ machines ~~pouvaient fonctionner jour et nuit~~, ~~indépendamment des~~ conditions ~~météorologiques ou de la force musculaire humaine ou animale~~. ~~L’impact de la machine à vapeur sur la société industrielle a été~~ colossal, ~~non seulement en améliorant l'efficacité et en réduisant les coûts~~, ~~mais aussi en transformant radicalement la manière de travailler et l’organisation du travail~~. ~~Avec le développement du chemin de fer à vapeur et des bateaux à vapeur~~, ~~la machine à vapeur a aussi révolutionné le~~ transport, ~~accélérant ainsi le commerce et la~~ communication ~~à une échelle jusqu'alors inimaginable~~.		The combination of steel and coal was one of the pillars of the Industrial Revolution, along with the textile sector, literally forging the tools and materials needed to build the industrial age. Abraham Darby's innovation in 1709 was a decisive turning point. By using coke, derived from coal (mineral coal), instead of charcoal to smelt iron ore, Darby not only responded to the energy crisis caused by deforestation, but also laid the foundations for much greater iron and steel production. Charcoal was limited not only by the quantity of wood available, but also by its energy efficiency. The Darby process made it possible to produce iron in greater quantities and at lower cost, as the coke could reach the higher and more constant temperatures required for iron production. In addition, coal deposits were abundant in England, guaranteeing a stable and economical supply. This advance had a huge impact, as iron was essential to many industries of the time, including the construction of machinery, ships, buildings and, later, railways. What's more, as coke became the preferred fuel for iron production, this stimulated coal mining, reinforcing the synergy between the iron and coal industries. This dynamic created a virtuous circle of innovation and production that fuelled Britain's industrial expansion and helped establish its global economic dominance throughout the 19th century.

			The use of mechanical energy via the steam engine is another fundamental aspect of the Industrial Revolution. The adaptation of this technology in various industrial sectors led to a quantum leap in production and efficiency. The steam engine, in its primitive form, was developed in the early 18th century, with inventors such as Thomas Newcomen who, in 1712, created a steam engine designed to pump water out of coal mines. Although this machine was a significant advance, it was still inefficient and expensive to operate. The real breakthrough came with James Watt, who in the 1760s and 1770s made decisive improvements to Newcomen's steam engine. In particular, he invented a separate condenser that considerably reduced coal consumption and increased efficiency. Watt went on to develop an engine that converted reciprocating motion into rotation, making it applicable to many industrial processes, far beyond the simple pumping of water. From 1780 onwards, with continuous improvements by Watt and others, the steam engine became the engine of industry. It made it possible to synchronise the work of machines, resulting in more predictable and regular production. Workers could now adjust the machine to optimise their working time, and machines could operate day and night, regardless of weather conditions or human or animal muscle power. The impact of the steam engine on industrial society was colossal, not only improving efficiency and reducing costs, but also radically transforming the way work was done and organised. With the development of steam railways and steamships, the steam engine also revolutionised transport, speeding up trade and communication on a previously unimaginable scale.

	=Le rôle de l’innovation=		=Le rôle de l’innovation=

Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution - Historique des versions

Arthur le 29 novembre 2023 à 19:43

Arthur : /* The enclosure process */

Arthur : /* Caractère inéluctable de la révolution industrielle ? */

Arthur : /* Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe? */

Arthur : /* Major social changes in 18th-century Britain */

Arthur : /* Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England */

Arthur : /* Le factory system */

Arthur : /* The concept of innovation */

Arthur : /* Le rôle de l’innovation */

Arthur : /* The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy */

Arthur : /* The enclosure process */

Arthur : /* Caractère inéluctable de la révolution industrielle ? */

Arthur : /* Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe? */

Arthur : /* Major social changes in 18th-century Britain */

Arthur : /* Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England */

Arthur : /* Le factory system */

Arthur : /* The concept of innovation */

Arthur : /* Le rôle de l’innovation */

Arthur : /* The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy */