|
|
| (3 versions intermédiaires par le même utilisateur non affichées) |
| Ligne 42 : |
Ligne 42 : |
|
| |
|
| === 法律生效 === | | === 法律生效 === |
| The entry into force of a law is the point at which it becomes binding and applicable. In the Swiss legal system, the process by which a law comes into force is generally defined either by the legislative text itself or by a decision of the Federal Council. When a law is passed by Parliament, it may specify directly in its text the date on which it will come into force. This is common practice for laws whose application requires advance preparation, allowing individuals, businesses and government bodies to adapt to new legal requirements. In cases where the law does not explicitly state when it will come into force, the Federal Council, the executive body of the Swiss federal government, is responsible for setting the date. The Federal Council takes this decision taking into account various factors, such as the need to allow sufficient time for implementation, the practical implications of the law, and coordination with other legislation or policies in force. The entry into force of a law is an important milestone, as it is at this point that the legal provisions become binding and the legal consequences of non-compliance apply. This underlines the importance of communicating and publishing laws, such as through the Federal Gazette and the Official Compendium, to ensure that all stakeholders are informed and ready to comply with new regulations. By setting the date of entry into force, the Federal Council plays a key role in ensuring a smooth transition to the application of the new legal standards.
| | 法律生效是指法律开始具有约束力并开始适用。在瑞士法律体系中，法律生效的程序一般由法律文本本身或联邦委员会的决定确定。当一项法律由议会通过时，它可以在文本中直接规定生效日期。这种做法通常适用于需要提前准备的法律，以便个人、企业和政府机构适应新的法律要求。如果法律没有明确规定生效日期，则由瑞士联邦政府的执行机构联邦委员会负责确定生效日期。联邦委员会在作出这一决定时会考虑各种因素，如需要留出足够的时间来实施、法律的实际影响以及与其他现行法律或政策的协调等。法律生效是一个重要的里程碑，因为此时法律规定才具有约束力，不遵守法律将承担法律后果。这就强调了通过《联邦公报》和《官方汇编》等渠道宣传和公布法律的重要性，以确保所有利益相关者都能了解并准备好遵守新法规。通过确定生效日期，联邦委员会在确保平稳过渡到适用新法律标准方面发挥了关键作用。 |
|
| |
|
| The process of creating and applying a law in legal systems such as Switzerland's is a structured and meticulous one, beginning with the adoption of the law by Parliament. This first phase sees a bill debated and amended by elected representatives in a bicameral context, where two chambers scrutinise the content and relevance of the proposed legislation. A concrete example might be the adoption of a new environmental law, where Parliament discusses its implications and adjusts its provisions to address environmental and economic concerns. Once Parliament has adopted the law, it is promulgated. This formal step, often carried out by the Federal Council in Switzerland, is an official recognition of the law. Promulgation is a signal that the law has met all the necessary criteria and is ready to be communicated to the public. For example, a law enacted on road safety would be officially announced, indicating its importance and imminent validity. Publication follows enactment. The law is made available in an official compendium, enabling all citizens and interested parties to become acquainted with it. Publication ensures that the law is transparent and accessible, as in the case of new tax regulations, where the precise details and implications for citizens and businesses must be clearly communicated. Finally, entry into force is the stage at which the law becomes applicable. The date of application may be specified in the text of the law or determined by the Federal Council. This stage marks the point at which the provisions of the law must be respected and followed. Take the example of a new data protection law: once it has come into force, companies and organisations must comply with the new standards for managing personal data. This process, from adoption to entry into force, ensures that each law is carefully examined, validated and communicated, reflecting democratic and legal principles, while guaranteeing that citizens are well informed and prepared for future legislative changes.
| | 在瑞士这样的法律体系中，制定和适用法律的过程是一个有条不紊、一丝不苟的过程，首先是议会通过法律。在第一阶段，民选代表在两院制背景下对法案进行辩论和修正，两院对拟议立法的内容和相关性进行审查。一个具体的例子可能是通过一项新的环境法，议会讨论其影响并调整其条款，以解决环境和经济问题。议会通过法律后，法律即被颁布。这一正式步骤通常由瑞士联邦委员会执行，是对法律的正式承认。颁布是一个信号，表明法律已达到所有必要标准，可以向公众公布。例如，一项关于道路安全的法律颁布后将正式公布，表明其重要性和即将生效。颁布之后是公布。法律将以官方汇编的形式公布，使所有公民和有关各方都能了解该法律。公布可确保法律的透明度和可及性，就像新的税收法规一样，必须清楚地告知公民和企业准确的细节和影响。最后，生效是法律开始适用的阶段。适用日期可以在法律文本中明确规定，也可以由联邦委员会确定。这一阶段标志着法律条款必须得到尊重和遵守。以新的数据保护法为例：一旦该法生效，公司和组织就必须遵守管理个人数据的新标准。从通过到生效的这一过程，确保了每项法律都经过仔细审查、论证和沟通，体现了民主和法律原则，同时也保证了公民对未来法律变化的充分了解和准备。 |
|
| |
|
| === Repeal of the law === | | === 废除法律 === |
| Repeal, in the legal context, is a process by which a legislative act is annulled or suppressed by a new act of the same or higher rank. The act may be repealed in its entirety or only in part. Once repealed, the legislative act ceases to produce legal effects, which means that it is no longer applicable and can no longer be invoked in judicial decisions or legal transactions.
| | 在法律上，废止是指一项立法行为被同级或更高级别的新行为所废除或压制的过程。法案可以全部废止，也可以部分废止。一旦被废除，立法行为就不再产生法律效力，这意味着它不再适用，也不能再在司法判决或法律交易中被援引。 |
|
| |
|
| This concept of repeal is fundamental in law and is encapsulated in the Latin adage "Lex posterior derogat priori", which translates as "the later law derogates from the earlier law". This means that in the event of a conflict between two laws, the more recent law generally prevails over the earlier law. This adage is a key principle of the hierarchy of norms in law, ensuring that the legal system remains coherent and up to date. A concrete example of repeal might be the introduction of new privacy legislation that replaces and overrides an earlier law on the same subject. The new law, once enacted and in force, would render the previous law obsolete and inapplicable.
| | 废止这一概念在法律中至关重要，拉丁语格言 "Lex posterior derogat priori "概括了这一概念，译为 "后法减损前法"。这意味着，当两部法律发生冲突时，较新的法律通常优先于较早的法律。这一格言是法律规范等级的关键原则，确保法律体系保持连贯和与时俱进。废止的一个具体例子可能是引入新的隐私法，取代并凌驾于先前关于同一主题的法律之上。新法律一旦颁布并生效，就会使以前的法律变得过时和不适用。 |
|
| |
|
| Repeal is an important tool for legislators, ensuring that the body of law remains adapted to changes in society, technological change and new ethical and moral standards. It also makes it possible to repeal laws that have become redundant or have been deemed inappropriate or ineffective. In short, repeal is essential to maintain a dynamic and responsive legal system, capable of responding to the changing needs of society.
| | 废除是立法者的一项重要工具，可确保法律体系始终适应社会变化、技术变革和新的伦理道德标准。它还可以废除那些已经多余或被认为不合适或无效的法律。简而言之，废止对于维持一个充满活力、反应迅速、能够应对不断变化的社会需求的法律体系至关重要。 |
|
| |
|
| == The principle of non-retroactivity of the law == | | == 法律不溯及既往原则 == |
| The principle you describe is closely linked to the notion of non-retroactivity of laws, a fundamental concept in law. According to this principle, a new legal norm must not retroactively affect situations that arose under the aegis of a previous rule. This means that a law cannot be applied to situations, acts or facts that occurred before it came into force.
| | 您所描述的原则与法律的基本概念--法律不溯及既往密切相关。根据这一原则，新的法律规范不得追溯影响在先前规则支持下出现的情况。这意味着法律不能适用于其生效前发生的情况、行为或事实。 |
|
| |
|
| This principle of non-retroactivity is rooted in the declarations of fundamental rights dating back to the 18th century. An emblematic example is Article 9 of the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 12 June 1776, as well as Article 8 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 26 August 1789. These fundamental texts, which stemmed from the beginnings of the modern era of human rights, laid the foundations for legal protection against the retroactivity of laws, particularly in the criminal field. Article 8 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted at the time of the French Revolution, clearly states that only necessary penalties can be established and that a person can only be punished under a law that was in force at the time the act was committed. This provision is intended to ensure fair justice and protect citizens against the arbitrary application of the law. Similarly, Article 9 of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, a precursor to the American Constitution, reflects these same values of justice and legal predictability. These principles were revolutionary at the time and have greatly influenced the development of modern legal systems. The principle of non-retroactivity, as formulated in these historic documents, is a pillar of the rule of law. It ensures that individuals are not subject to laws that did not exist at the time of their actions, thereby providing protection against ex post facto legal changes that could alter the legal consequences of their actions. This principle strengthens confidence in the legal system, as it assures citizens that laws will not be applied arbitrarily or unfairly.
| | 这项不溯及既往的原则植根于 18 世纪的基本权利宣言。1776 年 6 月 12 日的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》第 9 条以及 1789 年 8 月 26 日的《人权和公民权利宣言》第 8 条就是一个典型的例子。这些基本文本源于现代人权时代的开端，为防止法律的溯及既往，特别是刑事领域的法律溯及既往奠定了基础。法国大革命时期通过的《人权和公民权利宣言》第 8 条明确规定，只能制定必要的刑罚，而且只能根据行为发生时有效的法律对个人进行处罚。这一规定旨在确保公正司法，保护公民免受任意适用法律之害。同样，《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》（美国宪法的前身）第 9 条也反映了这些公正和法律可预测性的价值观。这些原则在当时具有革命性意义，并极大地影响了现代法律制度的发展。这些历史性文件中提出的不溯及既往原则是法治的支柱。它确保个人不受在其行为发生时并不存在的法律的约束，从而提供保护，防止事后法律变更改变其行为的法律后果。这一原则增强了人们对法律制度的信心，因为它向公民保证法律不会被任意或不公正地适用。 |
|
| |
|
| This principle is essential to guarantee legal certainty and the predictability of the law. It protects individuals against the retroactive application of legislative changes, particularly in cases where such application could be prejudicial or unfair. In practice, this ensures that individuals cannot be held liable under a law that did not exist at the time the action or event occurred. The non-retroactivity of laws is a pillar of justice and fairness, ensuring that individuals are not penalised by unpredictable and sudden legislative changes. This principle helps to maintain confidence in the legal system and to protect the fundamental rights of individuals.[[Fichier:Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du Citoyen du 26 aout 1789 - article 8.png|vignette|center|400px|[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/constitutions/declaration-des-droits-de-l-home-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.asp Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du Citoyen du 26 aout 1789] - Article 8]]
| | 这一原则对于保证法律的确定性和可预测性至关重要。它保护个人免受追溯适用法律变更的影响，尤其是在追溯适用可能造成损害或不公平的情况下。在实践中，这可确保个人不会因行为或事件发生时并不存在的法律而被追究责任。法律不溯及既往是公正和公平的支柱，可确保个人不会因不可预测的突然立法变化而受到惩罚。这一原则有助于维持人们对法律制度的信心，保护个人的基本权利。[[Fichier:Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du Citoyen du 26 aout 1789 - article 8.png|vignette|center|400px|[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/constitutions/declaration-des-droits-de-l-home-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.asp Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du Citoyen du 26 aout 1789] - Article 8]] |
|
| |
|
| Article 2 of the Swiss Criminal Code is a perfect example of how to implement the principle of non-retroactivity of laws, while incorporating an important exception in favour of the accused. This article sets out the rules for applying the Code in terms of temporality and jurisdiction.
| | 瑞士刑法典》第 2 条是实施法律不溯及既往原则的完美范例，同时还纳入了有利于被告的重要例外。本条规定了《刑法典》在时间性和管辖权方面的适用规则。 |
|
| |
|
| [[Fichier:Code pénal suisse - article 2.png|vignette|center|400px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/ Code pénal suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/index.html#a2 article 2]]] | | [[Fichier:Code pénal suisse - article 2.png|vignette|center|400px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/ Code pénal suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/index.html#a2 article 2]]] |
| The first part of the article stipulates that anyone who commits a felony or misdemeanour after the entry into force of the Penal Code shall be judged in accordance with its provisions. This directly reflects the principle of non-retroactivity, stating that actions are assessed according to the law in force at the time they were committed. This ensures that individuals will not be judged according to laws that did not exist at the time of their actions, thus ensuring a fair and predictable application of the law. The second part of the article introduces a notable exception to the principle of non-retroactivity, known as "milder criminal law". Under this provision, if a crime or misdemeanour was committed before the entry into force of the Criminal Code but the perpetrator is not brought to trial until after that date, and the provisions of the new Code are more favourable to the accused than the previous law, then the new Code applies. This exception is an example of the tendency of legal systems to favour interpretations and laws that benefit the accused, an approach that reflects the principle of the presumption of innocence and the desire to avoid unjustly harsh penalties. Article 2 of the Swiss Criminal Code illustrates the complexity and nuance of the principle of non-retroactivity, balancing the need for predictable justice with the principles of fairness and equity for the accused.
| | 该条第一部分规定，任何人在《刑法典》生效后犯下重罪或轻罪，应根据其规定进行判决。这直接体现了不溯及既往的原则，即根据行为发生时有效的法律对行为进行评估。这确保了个人不会根据其行为发生时并不存在的法律受到审判，从而确保了法律的公平和可预测的适用。该条第二部分引入了不溯及既往原则的一个显著例外，即 "较轻刑法"。根据这一规定，如果一项罪行或轻罪是在《刑法典》生效之前实施的，但犯罪人在生效日之后才被送上法庭，且新法典的规定比以前的法律对被告更有利，则适用新法典。这种例外情况是法律制度倾向于有利于被告的解释和法律的一个例子，这种做法反映了无罪推定原则和避免不公正的严厉处罚的愿望。瑞士刑法典》第 2 条说明了不溯及既往原则的复杂性和细微差别，该条兼顾了可预测司法的需要和对被告公平公正的原则。 |
|
| |
|
| There is an important nuance in the application of the principle of non-retroactivity in criminal law, particularly in relation to the doctrine of 'milder criminal law'. This doctrine constitutes a notable exception to the general rule of non-retroactivity, as you mentioned in the context of Article 2 of the Swiss Criminal Code. According to this doctrine, if a new criminal law is more lenient or more favourable to the accused than the old law in force at the time the offence was committed, the new law can be applied retroactively. This exception is based on the principle of fair justice and aims to ensure that the accused benefits from the most lenient legislation possible. This approach reflects an orientation towards protecting the rights of the accused in the legal system. It is based on the idea that justice must not only be fair and predictable, but also adapted to avoid excessively harsh punishments. In practice, this means that if a law is changed between the time of the offence and the time of sentencing, and this change is advantageous to the accused, the change must be applied. This derogation from non-retroactivity demonstrates the adaptability and sensitivity of criminal law to the fundamental principles of human rights. It is essential to maintain a balance between the strict application of the law and the need for justice to take account of changing circumstances and evolving social and legal norms.[[Fichier:Convention de sauvegarde des Droits de l'Homme et des Libertés - article 7.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/fr/Treaties/Html/005.htm Convention européenne des droits de l’Homme] - article 7]]
| | 在刑法中适用不溯及既往原则有一个重要的细微差别，特别是与 "较轻刑法 "理论有关的细微差别。正如你在《瑞士刑法典》第 2 条中所提到的，这一理论是不溯及既往的一般规则的一个显著例外。根据这一理论，如果新刑法比犯罪时有效的旧法更宽松或对被告更有利，则新法可以追溯适用。这一例外基于公平正义原则，旨在确保被告从尽可能宽松的法律中受益。这种做法反映了在法律制度中保护被告权利的取向。它所依据的理念是，司法不仅要公平、可预测，而且要避免过度严厉的惩罚。在实践中，这意味着如果在犯罪和判刑之间法律发生了变化，并且这种变化对被告有利，则必须适用这种变化。这种不溯及既往的减损表明刑法对人权基本原则的适应性和敏感性。必须在严格适用法律与司法需要考虑到不断变化的情况以及不断演变的社会和法律规范之间保持平衡。[[Fichier:Convention de sauvegarde des Droits de l'Homme et des Libertés - article 7.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/fr/Treaties/Html/005.htm Convention européenne des droits de l’Homme] - article 7]] |
|
| |
|
| Article 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights embodies a key principle in criminal law, that of the legality of offences and penalties. This principle states that no one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence under national or international law at the time when it was committed. This provision plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights and preserving fair justice. This principle ensures that laws are formulated in a clear and accessible way, enabling citizens to understand the legal consequences of their actions. For example, if an individual commits an act that is not defined as a crime at the time of its commission, they cannot be retroactively prosecuted if that act is subsequently criminalised. This approach protects citizens from arbitrary or unpredictable changes in the law, ensuring that no one is penalised for acts that were not illegal at the time they were carried out.
| | 欧洲人权公约》第 7 条体现了刑法的一项关键原则，即犯罪和刑罚的合法性。该原则规定，任何人的任何行为或不行为，如果在实施时根据国内法或国际法不构成刑事犯罪，则不得被视为犯有刑事罪。这一规定在保护个人权利和维护公平正义方面发挥着至关重要的作用。该原则确保法律的制定清晰易懂，使公民能够理解其行为的法律后果。例如，如果个人实施的行为在实施时未被定义为犯罪，那么如果该行为后来被定为刑事犯罪，则不能对其进行追溯起诉。这种做法可以保护公民免受任意或不可预测的法律变化的影响，确保没有人会因为实施时并不违法的行为而受到惩罚。 |
|
| |
|
| Article 7 also reflects the commitment of democratic systems to the non-retroactivity of criminal laws. It prevents governments from applying new criminal laws to past actions, a practice that would not only be unjust but also contrary to fundamental principles of justice. This protection against the retroactive application of criminal laws is essential for public confidence in the legal system and for the foreseeability of the law. Finally, this provision of the European Convention on Human Rights serves as a safeguard against the abuse of legislative power. It prevents states from punishing individuals for behaviour that was not considered criminal at the time it was committed, thereby protecting citizens against arbitrariness and abuse of power. Article 7 not only guarantees the clarity and precision of criminal laws; it is also a pillar of the protection of fundamental rights, ensuring that justice is administered in a fair and predictable manner.
| | 第 7 条还体现了民主制度对刑法不溯及既往的承诺。它防止政府对过去的行为适用新的刑法，因为这种做法不仅不公正，而且有违基本的正义原则。这种防止追溯适用刑法的保护对于公众对法律制度的信任和法律的可预见性至关重要。最后，《欧洲人权公约》的这一条款是防止滥用立法权的保障。它防止国家因个人行为在实施时未被视为犯罪而对其进行惩罚，从而保护公民免受任意性和滥用权力之害。第 7 条不仅保证了刑法的明确性和准确性，也是保护基本权利的支柱，确保以公平和可预测的方式执行司法。 |
|
| |
|
| == Transitional provisions == | | == 过渡条款 == |
| Transitional law, often embodied in transitional provisions in legislation, plays a crucial role in the process of legislative change. These provisions are special rules of law, designed to be temporary and to facilitate the transition from old to new legislation. They take account of the need for individuals, businesses and government institutions to adjust and adapt to changes in legislation. These transitional provisions serve several essential purposes. Firstly, they provide a period for adaptation, allowing the parties concerned to gradually comply with the new requirements without major disruption. For example, if a new law imposes stricter environmental standards, transitional provisions could give companies time to comply with the new regulations, thus avoiding abrupt or destabilising economic consequences.
| | 过渡法通常体现为立法中的过渡条款，在立法变革过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。这些条款是特殊的法律规则，旨在临时性地促进新旧立法的过渡。它们考虑到了个人、企业和政府机构调整和适应立法变化的需要。这些过渡性规定有几个基本目的。首先，它们提供了一个适应期，使有关各方能够逐步遵守新的要求，而不会出现大的混乱。例如，如果一项新的法律规定了更严格的环境标准，过渡性条款可以为公司提供遵守新规定的时间，从而避免突然或不稳定的经济后果。 |
|
| |
|
| Secondly, transitional provisions help to avoid or mitigate retroactive legal effects. They may, for example, specify that certain parts of the new law will not apply to situations already in progress on the date it comes into force. This can be crucial in areas such as tax or contract law, where parties need clarity about how new laws affect existing agreements or past tax obligations. In addition, transitional law can also be used to clarify situations where the provisions of old and new legislation might conflict, by establishing guidelines as to which law applies in specific circumstances. In this way, transitional law is an important tool for ensuring a smooth legislative transition. It helps to preserve legal stability and to ensure that legislative changes are implemented fairly and effectively, without unforeseen or disproportionate consequences.
| | 其次，过渡性条款有助于避免或减轻追溯性法律效力。例如，过渡性条款可以明确规定，新法律的某些部分不适用于新法律生效之日已经发生的情况。这在税法或合同法等领域可能至关重要，因为在这些领域，当事人需要明确新法律如何影响现有协议或过去的纳税义务。此外，过渡性法律还可用于澄清新旧法律条款可能发生冲突的情况，为在特定情况下适用哪部法律制定准则。因此，过渡法是确保立法平稳过渡的重要工具。它有助于维护法律的稳定性，确保立法变革得到公平有效的实施，而不会产生不可预见或不相称的后果。 |
|
| |
|
| = The application of law in space = | | = 法律在空间的适用 = |
| The application of law in space, often referred to as private international law or conflict of laws, is a complex area that deals with how laws are applied in situations involving foreign or cross-border elements. This area of law is becoming particularly relevant in an increasingly globalised world, where individuals, goods, services and capital easily cross national borders. The fundamental principle of private international law is to determine which jurisdiction has jurisdiction and which national law is applicable in cases involving several legal systems. For example, if a contract is signed in one country but is to be performed in another, private international law helps to resolve questions such as: which country has jurisdiction to hear the dispute? Which national law should be applied to govern the contract?
| | 法律在空间中的适用，通常被称为国际私法或法律冲突，是一个复杂的领域，涉及在涉及外国或跨境因素的情况下如何适用法律。在日益全球化的世界中，个人、货物、服务和资本很容易跨越国界，因此这一法律领域变得尤为重要。国际私法的基本原则是确定在涉及多个法律体系的情况下，哪个司法管辖区拥有管辖权，哪个国家的法律适用。例如，如果一份合同在一个国家签署，但要在另一个国家履行，国际私法有助于解决以下问题：哪个国家拥有审理争议的管辖权？合同应适用哪个国家的法律？ |
|
| |
|
| To resolve these questions, lawyers rely on rules and principles to determine the applicable law. These rules include, but are not limited to, the law of the place where the contract was signed (lex loci contractus), the law of the place where the obligation is to be performed (lex loci solutionis) or the law of the place with which the case has the closest connection. In addition to national legislation, international conventions and treaties also play an important role in the application of the law in space. For example, the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction establishes procedures for the return of children abducted abroad. Applying the law across borders therefore requires a thorough understanding not only of national laws but also of international rules and conflict-of-law principles, thus ensuring that cross-border cases are handled fairly and consistently.
| | 要解决这些问题，律师需要依据规则和原则来确定适用法律。这些规则包括但不限于合同签订地法（合同地法）、义务履行地法（解决地法）或与案件关系最密切的地方的法律。除国家立法外，国际公约和条约在空间法的适用方面也发挥着重要作用。例如，《国际儿童拐骗事件的民事问题海牙公约》规定了送回国外被拐儿童的程序。因此，跨境适用法律不仅需要全面了解国内法，还需要全面了解国际规则和法律冲突原则，从而确保跨境案件得到公正一致的处理。 |
|
| |
|
| === Principle of the territoriality of law === | | === 法律属地原则 === |
| The principle of the territoriality of law is a cornerstone of international law, affirming that a state's legislation is applicable only within its territorial borders. This concept underlines the sovereignty of each State to establish and enforce its own laws, thus recognising the autonomy and independence of nations in the management of their internal affairs. According to this principle, an individual or entity is subject to the laws of the country in which it is located. For example, an Italian citizen, when in Italy, is governed by Italian laws, but when travelling to Spain, becomes subject to Spanish laws. This rule is essential for legal coherence and predictability, ensuring that individuals know the laws to which they are subject and that states maintain their legislative authority within their territory.
| | 法律的属地性原则是国际法的基石，它确认一国的立法只适用于其领土边界内。这一概念强调各国拥有制定和实施本国法律的主权，从而承认各国在管理其内部事务方面的自主性和独立性。根据这一原则，个人或实体须遵守所在国的法律。例如，意大利公民在意大利时受意大利法律管辖，但前往西班牙时则受西班牙法律管辖。这一规则对于法律的连贯性和可预见性至关重要，它确保个人了解自己应遵守的法律，并确保国家在其领土内保持立法权威。 |
|
| |
|
| However, the territoriality of the law is not without its complexities and exceptions. In the field of international criminal law, for example, certain serious crimes such as war crimes and genocide can be prosecuted under the principle of universal jurisdiction, which allows a State to try such crimes regardless of where they were committed. This exception reflects an international recognition that certain acts are so damaging to world order that they cannot be limited by territorial borders. In addition, with the advent of digital technology and economic globalisation, certain laws, particularly those relating to cyber security, intellectual property and financial regulations, may have extraterritorial implications. For example, data protection laws, such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), can affect companies located outside the EU if they process data from EU citizens.
| | 然而，法律的属地性并非没有复杂性和例外情况。例如，在国际刑法领域，某些严重罪行，如战争罪和种族灭绝罪，可以根据普遍管辖权原则进行起诉。这一例外反映了国际社会认识到，某些行为对世界秩序的破坏性如此之大，以至于不能受领土边界的限制。此外，随着数字技术和经济全球化的到来，某些法律，尤其是与网络安全、知识产权和金融法规有关的法律，可能会产生域外影响。例如，数据保护法，如欧盟的《通用数据保护条例》（GDPR），如果位于欧盟以外的公司处理欧盟公民的数据，就会受到影响。 |
|
| |
|
| The principle of territoriality of law, which states that any person or thing located in a country is governed by the law of that country, is a fundamental concept in international law. This principle reinforces the idea that each State has sovereignty over its territory, enabling it to exercise legislative authority over the persons, goods and activities located there. This implies that national laws are the primary norms governing conduct and relationships within a state's borders. However, there are notable exceptions to this principle, especially in the area of public law, where the exercise of public power is concerned. One of the most significant exceptions is that relating to diplomats. Foreign diplomats and the staff of diplomatic missions enjoy a special status under international public law, in particular in accordance with the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
| | 法律属地性原则是国际法中的一个基本概念，它规定位于一国的任何人或事物都受该国法律的管辖。这一原则强化了每个国家对其领土拥有主权的理念，使其能够对位于该国的人员、货物和活动行使立法权。这意味着国家法律是规范一国境内行为和关系的主要准则。然而，这一原则也有明显的例外，尤其是在涉及公权力行使的公法领域。最重要的例外之一是与外交官有关的例外。根据国际公法，特别是 1961 年《维也纳外交关系公约》，外国外交官和外交使团工作人员享有特殊地位。 |
|
| |
|
| Under this convention, diplomats are granted immunity from the criminal, civil and administrative jurisdiction of the host country. This means that they are not subject to the same laws as ordinary citizens or residents of the host country. For example, a diplomat accredited in France is exempt from French jurisdiction for most acts performed in the exercise of his or her official duties. This immunity is intended to ensure that diplomats can carry out their duties without fear of interference or persecution from the host country, thereby facilitating international relations and communication between states. This exception for diplomats illustrates how the principles of public international law can prevail over the principle of territoriality of law. It underlines the need to balance national sovereignty with the requirements of the harmonious functioning of international relations.
| | 根据该公约，外交官享有东道国刑事、民事和行政管辖豁免权。这意味着他们不受东道国普通公民或居民相同法律的管辖。例如，派驻法国的外交官在履行公务时的大多数行为都不受法国管辖。这种豁免权旨在确保外交官在履行职责时不必担心东道国的干涉或迫害，从而促进国际关系和国家间的交流。外交官的这一例外情况说明了国际公法原则如何能够优先于法律的属地原则。它强调了平衡国家主权与国际关系和谐运作要求的必要性。 |
|
| |
|
| === Principle of the extraterritoriality of foreign diplomats === | | === 外国外交官治外法权原则 === |
| The principle of extraterritoriality of foreign diplomats is a key concept in international law, playing a vital role in maintaining effective and harmonious diplomatic relations between nations. According to this principle, although diplomats and embassies are physically located in a host country, they are not subject to the jurisdiction of that country, but rather to that of their own State. This rule is fundamental to ensuring the independence and security of diplomatic missions. Diplomatic immunity, which is an application of this principle, offers diplomats protection from prosecution in the host country. This immunity extends to both criminal and civil proceedings, ensuring that diplomats can carry out their duties without fear of interference. For example, if a diplomat commits a traffic offence in the host country, he or she cannot be subject to the same legal proceedings as local citizens.
| | 外国外交官治外法权原则是国际法中的一个重要概念，在维护国家间有效、和谐的外交关系方面发挥着至关重要的作用。根据这一原则，尽管外交官和使馆实际位于东道国，但他们不受该国的管辖，而受其本国的管辖。这一规则对于确保外交使团的独立和安全至关重要。外交豁免是这一原则的应用，为外交官提供在东道国免受起诉的保护。这种豁免权既适用于刑事诉讼，也适用于民事诉讼，确保外交官在履行职责时不受干扰。例如，如果外交官在东道国犯有交通罪，他或她就不能像当地公民一样受到同样的法律诉讼。 |
|
| |
|
| Extraterritoriality also confers on embassy premises a kind of "sovereign territory" of the State they represent. This means that embassy premises cannot be searched or seized by the host country's authorities without the embassy's consent, providing a safe haven for diplomats and allowing them to conduct sensitive business without outside interference. It is important to note that, although diplomats benefit from extraterritoriality, they are still obliged to respect the laws of their own country. They are also encouraged to respect the laws and regulations of the host country, in accordance with the principles of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. This convention establishes the international standards governing diplomatic activities and aims to promote international cooperation within a respectful and secure framework. This approach to extraterritoriality is crucial to the functioning of international relations. It ensures that diplomats can carry out their official duties effectively, while maintaining mutual respect and sovereignty between countries. By balancing the needs of national sovereignty and international cooperation, the principle of exterritoriality contributes significantly to the stability and effectiveness of diplomatic relations around the world.
| | 治外法权还赋予使馆馆舍一种其所代表国家的 "主权领土"。这意味着未经使馆同意，东道国当局不得搜查或扣押使馆馆舍，从而为外交官提供了一个安全的避风港，使他们能够在不受外界干扰的情况下处理敏感事务。值得注意的是，尽管外交官享有治外法权，但他们仍有义务遵守本国法律。根据 1961 年《维也纳外交关系公约》的原则，我们也鼓励外交官尊重东道国的法律法规。该公约确立了外交活动的国际标准，旨在促进在相互尊重和安全的框架内开展国际合作。这种治外法权对国际关系的运作至关重要。它确保外交官能够有效履行公务，同时维护国家间的相互尊重和主权。通过平衡国家主权和国际合作的需要，治外法权原则极大地促进了全球外交关系的稳定性和有效性。 |
|
| |
|
| The principle of exterritoriality is effectively applied in the context of aviation, where an aircraft is considered to be an extension of the territory of the State whose flag it flies. This means that, even when an aircraft is in international flight or on the territory of another country, it is subject to the laws and jurisdiction of the State under which it is registered. This concept is an extension of national sovereignty over airspace and is essential for the regulation and management of international air traffic. When an aircraft registered in a particular country crosses international airspace or lands in another country, the laws of the aircraft's country of origin continue to apply on board. For example, if an incident occurs on board an aircraft registered in France, whether in international airspace or on the ground of another country, it is generally dealt with under French law. This principle ensures a certain consistency and uniformity in the application of laws on board aircraft, which is crucial given the international nature of air transport. However, this rule is subject to certain limitations and exceptions. In particular circumstances, such as serious crimes committed on board or situations that threaten the safety of the country where the aircraft lands, local authorities may intervene and apply their own legislation. In addition, international agreements such as the 1963 Tokyo Convention and the 1971 Montreal Convention lay down specific rules concerning the jurisdictions and laws applicable on board aircraft.
| | 治外法权原则在航空领域得到了有效应用，在航空领域，飞机被视为悬挂其国旗的国家领土的延伸。这意味着，即使飞机在国际航班上或在另一个国家的领土上，它也受其注册国的法律和司法管辖。这一概念是国家对领空主权的延伸，对于规范和管理国际空中交通至关重要。当在某国注册的航空器穿越国际空域或在另一国降落时，航空器原籍国的法律仍适用于机上。例如，如果在法国注册的飞机上发生事故，无论是在国际空域还是在另一国的地面上，一般都按照法国法律处理。这一原则确保了飞机上法律适用的一致性和统一性，鉴于航空运输的国际性，这一点至关重要。不过，这一规则也有一定的限制和例外。在特殊情况下，如飞机上发生严重犯罪或威胁到飞机着陆国安全的情况，地方当局可进行干预并适用本国法律。此外，1963 年《东京公约》和 1971 年《蒙特利尔公约》等国际协定对飞机上适用的管辖权和法律做出了具体规定。 |
|
| |
|
| = The interpretation of law = | | = 法律解释 = |
| Interpreting legal rules is a complex and nuanced intellectual process, essential for determining and clarifying the true meaning of legislative and regulatory texts. This practice is essential in the legal field, as laws are not always explicit or exhaustive in their wording, leaving room for diverse interpretations.
| | 解释法律规则是一个复杂而微妙的智力过程，对于确定和澄清立法和法规文本的真正含义至关重要。这种做法在法律领域至关重要，因为法律的措辞并不总是很明确或详尽，这就为不同的解释留下了空间。 |
|
| |
|
| There are several approaches to legal interpretation. One common method is literal interpretation, where the focus is on the ordinary meaning of the words used in the law. For example, if a law prohibits "driving at high speed", the literal interpretation will seek to define what exactly "high speed" means on the basis of ordinary language. However, literal interpretation may not always be sufficient or appropriate. Consequently, lawyers often turn to teleological interpretation, which seeks to understand the purpose or intention behind the law. For example, in the case of environmental legislation, teleological interpretation considers the overall objective of protecting the environment to guide the application of the law.
| | 法律解释有多种方法。一种常见的方法是字面解释，重点是法律用词的普通含义。例如，如果一项法律禁止 "高速行驶"，那么字面解释将试图根据普通语言定义 "高速行驶 "的确切含义。然而，字面解释并不总是充分或适当的。因此，律师通常会转向目的论解释，即试图理解法律背后的目的或意图。例如，就环境立法而言，目的论解释考虑了保护环境的总体目标，以指导法律的适用。 |
|
| |
|
| Systematic interpretation is another important method, which examines the law in the context of the overall legal system. This involves considering how a specific law fits with other laws or with established legal principles. In addition, historical interpretation can be used, particularly in complex cases. This approach takes into account the historical circumstances and legislative debates that preceded the adoption of the law, thus providing insight into the intentions of the legislators. Judges play a crucial role in interpreting legislation, particularly when faced with cases where the law must be applied to specific and sometimes novel situations. Their interpretation has a direct impact on the application of justice, illustrating the vital importance of this practice in maintaining legal order and achieving fair justice in society.
| | 系统解释是另一种重要方法，它将法律置于整个法律体系的背景下进行研究。这包括考虑特定法律如何与其他法律或既定法律原则相协调。此外，还可以使用历史解释，尤其是在复杂案件中。这种方法考虑到法律通过之前的历史环境和立法辩论，从而让人们深入了解立法者的意图。法官在解释法律方面发挥着至关重要的作用，尤其是在面对必须将法律适用于具体、有时甚至是新情况的案件时。他们的解释直接影响到司法的实施，说明这一做法在维护法律秩序和实现社会公平正义方面至关重要。 |
|
| |
|
| The reality of the application of the law in the life of society effectively highlights the rarity of situations where the law perfectly coincides with the facts. This observation highlights the constant need to interpret the rules of law. Despite their careful wording, legislative texts cannot anticipate all the nuances and complexities of real-life situations. The facts of life in society are extremely diverse, and each case may present unique particularities that are not explicitly covered by existing laws. This diversity of situations makes interpretation not only inevitable, but also essential to ensure that the law is applied fairly and effectively. For example, in the context of a contractual dispute, the terms of a contract may seem clear, but their application to a specific case may require extensive interpretation to understand the intentions of the parties and the context in which the agreement was made. Interpretation also becomes crucial when a law is vague or general in its wording. In interpreting the law, judges seek to give it a meaning that is both faithful to the intention of the legislature and adapted to the particular circumstances of the case in question. This task of interpretation requires a thorough understanding not only of the law itself, but also of wider legal principles and the social and historical context. Ultimately, interpretation is an indispensable component of the legal system, bridging the gap between the letter of the law and the complex and changing reality of life in society. It ensures that the law remains relevant, fair and adapted to the diverse needs and challenges of society.
| | 在社会生活中适用法律的现实有效地凸显了法律与事实完全吻合的情况的罕见性。这一现象凸显了解释法律规则的持续必要性。尽管法律条文措辞谨慎，但无法预见现实生活中的所有细微差别和复杂情况。社会生活中的事实千差万别，每个案例都可能呈现出现有法律未明确涵盖的独特性。这种情况的多样性使得解释不仅不可避免，而且对于确保公平有效地适用法律至关重要。例如，在合同纠纷中，合同条款可能看似明确，但将其适用于具体案件时可能需要进行大量解释，以理解当事人的意图和协议签订的背景。当法律的措辞模糊或笼统时，解释也变得至关重要。在解释法律时，法官力求赋予法律一个既忠实于立法机构意图又适合相关案件具体情况的含义。这项解释任务不仅要求对法律本身有透彻的理解，还要求对更广泛的法律原则以及社会和历史背景有透彻的理解。归根结底，解释是法律体系不可或缺的组成部分，是法律条文与复杂多变的社会生活现实之间的桥梁。它确保法律始终具有相关性、公正性，并适应社会的不同需求和挑战。 |
|
| |
|
| Interpreting the law is a complex task that involves a variety of players, each bringing a specific perspective and expertise. At the heart of this process are judges, who play an essential role as the principal interpreters of the law. In their judicial role, they analyse and apply the law to the cases before them. Their decisions are not limited to resolving individual disputes; they often set precedents that guide future interpretation of the law. For example, Supreme Court decisions in many countries have a lasting impact on the understanding and application of the law. At the same time, doctrine, which encompasses the work of academics, lawyers and jurists, plays an advisory but influential role in the interpretation of the law. Although their analyses and commentaries are not legally binding, they offer in-depth perspectives that can inform and influence legal reasoning. Academic articles or expert commentaries on specific legislation, for example, can provide arguments and interpretations that are then used by judges in their decisions. Finally, the legislature, the entity responsible for creating laws, holds the power of authentic interpretation. When the legislature intervenes to clarify or amend a law, this intervention is considered definitive, as it comes from the authority that created the law. This form of interpretation may be necessary when laws are ambiguous or incomplete. For example, a parliament may pass new legislation or an amendment to clarify a legal provision that was previously vague or open to different interpretations. Each of these players - judges, academics and legislators - makes a unique contribution to the interpretation and application of the law. Their interaction and mutual influence ensure that the law remains dynamic, adaptive and relevant to the changing challenges and complexities of modern society.
| | 解释法律是一项复杂的任务，涉及多个方面，每个方面都有其特定的视角和专业知识。法官是这一过程的核心，他们作为法律的主要解释者发挥着至关重要的作用。在司法工作中，他们分析法律并将其应用于所审理的案件。他们的裁决并不局限于解决个别争端；他们往往会开创先例，为今后的法律解释提供指导。例如，许多国家最高法院的判决对法律的理解和适用产生了持久的影响。与此同时，学说（包括学者、律师和法学家的工作）在法律解释中发挥着咨询但有影响力的作用。尽管他们的分析和评论不具有法律约束力，但他们提供的深入观点可以为法律推理提供信息并产生影响。例如，关于具体立法的学术文章或专家评论可以提供论据和解释，然后供法官在裁决中使用。最后，立法机构作为负责制定法律的实体，拥有权威解释权。当立法机构进行干预以澄清或修订法律时，这种干预被认为是权威性的，因为它来自制定法律的权威机构。当法律含糊不清或不完整时，这种形式的解释可能是必要的。例如，议会可能会通过新的立法或修正案，以澄清之前含糊不清或可作不同解释的法律条款。法官、学者和立法者等每个角色都对法律的解释和适用做出了独特的贡献。他们之间的互动和相互影响确保了法律始终保持活力、适应性和相关性，以应对现代社会不断变化的挑战和复杂性。 |
|
| |
|
| = Gaps in the law = | | = 法律空白 = |
| Gaps in the law are an inevitable phenomenon in any legal system, resulting from the difficulty, if not the impossibility, for the legislator to foresee all possible situations when drafting legislation. These gaps arise when real situations arise that are not explicitly covered by existing legislation, creating areas of legal uncertainty. There are two types of gaps in positive law: voluntary gaps and involuntary gaps. Voluntary gaps occur when the legislature deliberately chooses not to regulate a certain matter or situation, leaving it to the discretion of judges or other resolution mechanisms. For example, in certain areas of law, the legislature may intentionally leave vague terms or concepts open to interpretation to allow for flexibility in the application of the law.
| | 法律空白是任何法律体系中都不可避免的现象，这是由于立法者在起草法律时很难甚至不可能预见到所有可能出现的情况。当出现现有法律未明确涵盖的实际情况时，就会产生这些空白，从而造成法律不确定性。实在法中的空白有两种类型：自愿空白和非自愿空白。当立法机构有意选择不对某一事项或情况进行规范，而将其交由法官或其他解决机制酌情处理时，就会出现自愿空白。例如，在某些法律领域，立法机构可能故意留下模糊的术语或概念供解释，以便在适用法律时具有灵活性。 |
|
| |
|
| On the other hand, unintended gaps occur when the legislature, without any particular intention, fails to address an issue or situation that was not contemplated when the law was drafted. These gaps may become apparent with the evolution of society, the emergence of new technologies or new situations. For example, the advent of the Internet and social media has created numerous legal challenges that were not anticipated by traditional laws on communication and privacy. When such gaps arise, it is often up to judges to fill them by interpreting existing law to apply to the new situation. This process may involve extending existing principles to new circumstances or applying analogies with legally regulated situations. In some cases, the recognition of a gap may lead the legislature to intervene to fill the gap through new laws or amendments.When creating a law, the legislature cannot foresee all the actual cases that may arise. If the situation is not mentioned by the legislator, there is a gap in the positive law. This gap may or may not be intentional.
| | 另一方面，当立法机构在没有任何特别意图的情况下，未能解决起草法律时没有考虑到的问题或情况时，就会出现意外空白。随着社会的发展、新技术或新情况的出现，这些空白可能会变得明显。例如，互联网和社交媒体的出现带来了许多法律挑战，而传统的通信和隐私法律并未预见到这些挑战。当这些空白出现时，通常需要法官通过解释现有法律以适用于新情况来填补这些空白。这一过程可能涉及将现有原则扩展到新的情况，或与法律规定的情况进行类比。在某些情况下，对空白的认识可能会导致立法机构进行干预，通过新法律或修正案来填补空白。在制定法律时，立法机构不可能预见到所有可能出现的实际情况。如果立法者没有提到这种情况，那么实在法中就存在空白。这种空白可能是有意的，也可能是无意的。 |
|
| |
|
| Interpreting the law in the presence of gaps, i.e. when the existing rules do not cover a given situation, requires the use of specific methods of interpretation. These methods aim to fill legal gaps and provide solutions for cases that are not explicitly covered by existing legislation. One of the methods commonly used is interpretation by analogy. This approach involves applying to the situation not covered an existing rule that governs similar cases or shares fundamental principles with the situation in question. For example, if a new form of commercial contract emerges that is not explicitly covered by existing contract law, a judge may look for rules applicable to similar forms of contract and apply them by analogy. Another method is teleological interpretation, which focuses on the intention or objective of the legislature. This method seeks to determine the underlying purpose of existing laws and to extend their application so as to achieve that purpose in the case not covered. For example, if a law aims to protect online privacy, this intention can be used to interpret the law to cover new technological scenarios not explicitly provided for in the statute.
| | 在存在空白的情况下解释法律，即现有规则未涵盖特定情况时，需要使用特定的解释方法。这些方法旨在填补法律空白，为现有法律未明确涵盖的情况提供解决方案。常用的方法之一是类比解释。这种方法是将管辖类似案件或与相关情况共享基本原则的现有规则适用于未涵盖的情况。例如，如果出现了一种新的商业合同形式，而现有合同法并未明确涵盖，法官可以寻找适用于类似合同形式的规则，并通过类比加以适用。另一种方法是目的论解释，其重点是立法机构的意图或目标。这种方法旨在确定现行法律的根本目的，并扩大其适用范围，以便在未涵盖的情况下实现该目的。例如，如果一项法律旨在保护在线隐私，那么这种意图可用于解释法律，以涵盖法规中未明确规定的新技术情景。 |
|
| |
|
| In some legal systems, general principles of law also play an important role in filling gaps. These principles, which represent the conceptual foundations of the legal system, can serve as a guide for interpretation and decision-making in situations not explicitly regulated by law. Finally, in some cases, gaps may prompt the legislature to intervene and create new laws or amend existing laws to deal explicitly with the situation not covered. This is often the case in rapidly evolving fields such as technology or the environment, where new challenges regularly emerge. Overall, interpreting the law in the presence of gaps requires a combination of creativity, analytical rigour and a thorough understanding of legal principles, to ensure that the decisions taken are fair, reasonable and in keeping with the spirit of the legal system.
| | 在某些法律体系中，法律的一般原则在填补空白方面也发挥着重要作用。这些原则代表了法律体系的概念基础，可在法律未明确规定的情况下作为解释和决策的指南。最后，在某些情况下，空白可能会促使立法机构进行干预，制定新的法律或修订现有法律，以明确处理未涵盖的情况。在技术或环境等快速发展的领域，这种情况经常出现，因为这些领域经常出现新的挑战。总之，在存在空白的情况下解释法律，需要将创造力、严谨的分析和对法律原则的透彻理解结合起来，以确保做出的决定公平、合理并符合法律制度的精神。 |
|
| |
|
| == The intra legem gap (in the law) == | | == 法内差距（法律中的差距） == |
| The concept of an intra legem lacuna refers to a particular situation where a law, intentionally or not, leaves room for the judge's discretion, often due to the use of vague, unknown or indeterminate terms. This form of lacuna is distinguished by the fact that the legislature, recognising the complexity and diversity of real-life situations, deliberately leaves certain aspects of the law open to interpretation. In these cases, the legislature leaves it to the judge's discretion to determine how the law should be applied in specific situations. For example, a law may use terms such as "reasonable", "fair" or "in the public interest", which are not strictly defined. These terms give the judge some latitude to interpret the law according to the particular circumstances of each case.
| | 法内空白的概念是指法律有意或无意地为法官的自由裁量权留下空间的一种特殊情况，通常是由于使用了模糊、未知或不确定的术语。这种形式的空白的区别在于，立法机构认识到现实生活中情况的复杂性和多样性，故意在法律的某些方面留下解释的余地。在这种情况下，立法机构让法官自行决定在特定情况下如何适用法律。例如，法律可能会使用 "合理"、"公平 "或 "符合公众利益 "等术语，而这些术语并没有严格的定义。这些术语给予法官一定的自由度，使其能够根据每个案件的具体情况来解释法律。 |
|
| |
|
| This approach recognizes that the legislature cannot anticipate all the particular situations and nuances that may arise. By leaving certain terms open to interpretation, the legislature allows judges, who are directly confronted with the specific facts of each case, to use their expertise and judgment to apply the law in the fairest and most appropriate manner. The intra legem lacuna is therefore an important element of the law that reflects the necessary flexibility in the application of the law. It allows the legal system to adapt to individual cases while remaining faithful to the general intentions and objectives of the legislature. This flexibility is crucial to ensuring that justice is done not only according to the letter of the law, but also according to its spirit.[[Fichier:Code des obligations suisse - article 44.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19110009/201401010000/220.pdf Code des obligations] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19110009/index.html#a44 article 44]]]Article 44 of the Swiss Code of Obligations is an illustrative example of referral to the judge by the legislator, where certain formulas are used to confer discretionary power on the judge in the application of the law. This article shows how the legislator can intentionally leave the judge room for manoeuvre to take account of the particular circumstances of each case.
| | 这种方法承认立法机构无法预见可能出现的所有特殊情况和细微差别。通过对某些术语进行开放式解释，立法机构允许法官直接面对每个案件的具体事实，利用其专业知识和判断力以最公平、最适当的方式适用法律。因此，"法律内空白 "是法律的一个重要组成部分，体现了法律适用中必要的灵活性。它允许法律制度在忠实于立法机构的总体意图和目标的同时，适应个别案件。这种灵活性对于确保不仅根据法律条文，而且根据法律精神伸张正义至关重要。[[Fichier:Code des obligations suisse - article 44.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19110009/201401010000/220.pdf Code des obligations] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19110009/index.html#a44 article 44]]]瑞士债务法典》第 44 条是立法者向法官移交案件的一个示例，其中使用了某些公式来赋予法官在适用法律时的自由裁量权。本条说明了立法者如何有意为法官留出回旋余地，以考虑到每个案件的具体情况。 |
|
| |
|
| In the first paragraph of section 44, the judge is given the power to reduce damages, or even not to award damages, according to specific criteria. These include situations where the injured party has consented to the injury or where facts for which it is responsible have contributed to the injury. This provision allows the judge to take into account the nuances and shared responsibilities in situations of damage. The second paragraph goes further by allowing the judge to equitably reduce damages in cases where the injury was not caused intentionally or by gross negligence, and where full reparation would expose the debtor to hardship. This clause gives the judge the necessary latitude to assess the economic consequences of the reparation on the debtor and to adjust the damages accordingly.
| | 第 44 条第 1 款规定，法官有权根据具体标准减少损害赔偿，甚至不判给损害赔偿。这些标准包括受害方同意损害的情况，或受害方对损害负有责任的事实。该条款允许法官考虑损害情况下的细微差别和共同责任。第二款更进一步，允许法官在非蓄意或重大过失造成损害的情况下，以及在完全赔偿将使债务人陷入困境的情况下，公平地减少损害赔偿额。该条款给予法官必要的自由，以评估赔偿对债务人造成的经济后果，并相应调整损害赔偿额。 |
|
| |
|
| These provisions illustrate the legislature's recognition of the complexity of legal situations and the need to allow a degree of flexibility in resolving them. By entrusting the judge with the task of interpreting and applying the law in a way that is appropriate to each situation, the Swiss Code of Obligations demonstrates an approach to the law that values fairness and taking individual circumstances into account. This demonstrates the trust placed in the judiciary to show discernment and adaptability in the application of legal principles.[[Fichier:Code civil suisse - article 4.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/201307010000/210.pdf Code civil suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html#a4 article 4]]]Article 4 of the Swiss Civil Code highlights the concept of the judge's discretion, a crucial element in the application of the law. This provision illustrates how the legislator recognises and frames the role of the judge in interpreting and applying the law, taking into account the unique nature of each case. According to this article, the judge is not only required to apply the rules of law strictly, but also to exercise his or her judgment in accordance with equity when the law permits or requires it. This occurs in cases where the law itself expressly grants the judge the power to take account of the particular circumstances of a case or "just cause". For example, in family or child custody cases, the judge may have to make decisions that depart from the strict application of the law to best protect the interests of the child, based on the specific circumstances of the case.
| | 这些条款表明，立法机构认识到法律情况的复杂性，以及在解决这些问题时需要有一定程度的灵活性。瑞士债务法典》委托法官以适合各种情况的方式解释和适用法律，表明了重视公平和考虑个别情况的法律态度。这表明了对司法机构的信任，即在适用法律原则时应表现出鉴别力和适应性。[[Fichier:Code civil suisse - article 4.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/201307010000/210.pdf Code civil suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html#a4 article 4]]]瑞士民法典》第 4 条强调了法官自由裁量权的概念，这是适用法律的关键因素。该条款说明了立法者是如何承认和界定法官在解释和适用法律方面的作用的，同时考虑到每个案件的独特性。根据该条款，法官不仅要严格适用法律规则，还要在法律允许或要求的情况下根据公平原则做出判断。当法律本身明确赋予法官考虑案件特殊情况或 "正当理由 "的权力时，就会出现这种情况。例如，在家庭或儿童监护权案件中，法官可能不得不根据案件的具体情况，做出偏离严格适用法律的决定，以最大限度地保护儿童的利益。 |
|
| |
|
| This discretionary power is fundamental to ensuring that justice is adaptive and personalised. It recognises that legal situations are not always black and white and that rigid application of the law can sometimes lead to unfair or inappropriate outcomes. By entrusting the judge with the power to apply the law in a flexible manner, the Swiss Civil Code allows for an interpretation and application of the law that is both fair and adapted to the complex and diverse realities of life in society. This article reflects the confidence of the Swiss legal system in the discernment and competence of its judges, enabling them to use their expertise to achieve the fairest and most appropriate outcome in each case. Ultimately, the judge's discretion is an essential tool for ensuring that justice is not just a mechanical application of the law, but also a careful consideration of fairness and justice in each particular situation.
| | 这种自由裁量权对于确保司法的适应性和个性化至关重要。它承认法律情况并非总是非黑即白，一成不变地适用法律有时会导致不公平或不恰当的结果。通过赋予法官灵活适用法律的权力，《瑞士民法典》使法律的解释和适用既公平又能适应复杂多样的社会生活现实。这一条反映了瑞士法律制度对法官的鉴别力和能力的信任，使他们能够利用自己的专业知识在每个案件中取得最公平、最适当的结果。归根结底，法官的自由裁量权是确保司法公正的重要工具，它不仅仅是机械地适用法律，也是对每种特定情况下公平和正义的审慎考虑。 |
|
| |
|
| == The praeter legem gap (beyond the law) == | | == 法律之外的差距 == |
| The praeter legem gap, or gap beyond the law, represents a situation where the legislator, often unintentionally, leaves a legal vacuum by not providing any legal provision for a specific situation. This form of lacuna occurs when cases arise that were not envisaged or taken into account by the legislator when drafting the law, leading to the absence of rules or guidelines on how to deal with them. Unlike the intra legem gap, where the legislator intentionally leaves a certain degree of interpretation open, the praeter legem gap is typically unanticipated and results from a lack of foresight or recognition of future developments. Such gaps can be particularly prevalent in rapidly evolving areas, such as technology, where new situations can arise faster than the legislative process is able to regulate them.
| | 法律空白（praeter legem gap）或法律之外的空白（gap beyond the law）是指立法者往往无意中留下了法律真空，没有为特定情况提供任何法律规定。当出现立法者在起草法律时没有设想或考虑到的情况时，就会出现这种形式的空白，导致缺乏如何处理这些情况的规则或指南。与立法内空白不同的是，立法者有意留下一定程度的解释空间，而立法前空白通常是未曾预料到的，是对未来发展缺乏预见或认识的结果。这种空白在技术等快速发展的领域尤为普遍，因为在这些领域，新情况出现的速度可能快于立法程序对其进行规范的速度。 |
|
| |
|
| For example, legal issues relating to artificial intelligence, online data privacy or the implications of genome editing are areas where praeter legem gaps may be present. In these cases, there is no specific legal framework to guide the application or interpretation of the law. When a praeter legem gap is identified, judges may use various methods to fill the gap. They may rely on general principles of law, on analogies with similar situations regulated by law, or on considerations of equity and justice. In some cases, the recognition of such a gap may stimulate the legislative process, prompting the legislature to draft new laws or amend existing laws to deal explicitly with the situation in question.[[Fichier:Code civil suisse - article 1.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/201307010000/210.pdf Code civil suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html#a1 article 1]]]Article 1 of the Swiss Civil Code provides a clear illustration of how the legal system deals with situations where existing law does not cover a specific situation. This legal provision highlights the methodology and flexibility required to interpret and apply the law. According to the first paragraph of this article, the law is supposed to govern all matters that fall within the scope of its provisions, either explicitly by their letter or implicitly by their spirit. This means that the judge must first seek a solution within the framework of existing legislation, by interpreting the law not only according to its text but also according to the intention and purpose of the legislature. For example, in a contractual dispute, the judge would seek to apply the principles of contract law as set out in the Code, while taking into account the general intention of the legislature regarding contractual agreements.
| | 例如，与人工智能、在线数据隐私或基因组编辑的影响有关的法律问题，都是可能存在 "法律至上 "空白的领域。在这些情况下，没有具体的法律框架来指导法律的适用或解释。当发现存在 "法律赞许 "漏洞时，法官可使用各种方法来弥补漏洞。他们可以依据法律的一般原则、与法律规定的类似情况的类比，或基于公平和正义的考虑。在某些情况下，承认这种空白可能会促进立法进程，促使立法机构起草新法律或修订现有法律，以明确处理有关情况。[[Fichier:Code civil suisse - article 1.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/201307010000/210.pdf Code civil suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19070042/index.html#a1 article 1]]]瑞士民法典》第 1 条明确说明了法律制度如何处理现行法律未涵盖特定情况的问题。该法律条款强调了解释和适用法律所需的方法和灵活性。根据该条第一款的规定，法律应管辖其规定范围内的所有事项，无论是明文规定还是默示精神。这意味着法官必须首先在现有法律框架内寻求解决方案，不仅要根据法律条文解释法律，还要根据立法机构的意图和目的解释法律。例如，在合同纠纷中，法官将寻求适用《法典》中规定的合同法原则，同时考虑立法机构对合同协议的总体意图。 |
|
| |
|
| Where no specific statutory provision is applicable, the second paragraph of the Swiss Civil Code empowers the judge to turn to customary law. In the event that even customary law is inapplicable, the judge is then invited to act as if he were the legislator, establishing rules for the given situation. This approach gives the judge considerable latitude to develop legal solutions based on the fundamental principles of justice and equity. This could happen, for example, in cases involving new or emerging technologies where neither law nor custom provides clear guidance. Finally, the third paragraph guides the judge towards solutions already established in doctrine and case law. In the absence of applicable laws or customs, the judge should consider academic legal analyses and interpretations, as well as judicial precedents. This may include examining expert commentaries on similar cases or analysing past court decisions in comparable situations. Article 1 of the Swiss Civil Code thus demonstrates the importance of flexible and considered legal interpretation, enabling judges to respond effectively to legal gaps and adapt to changing circumstances in society. This provision ensures that the law remains dynamic and capable of responding to the ever-changing needs of individuals and society.
| | 如果没有具体的法律规定可适用，《瑞士民法典》第二款授权法官参考习惯法。在习惯法也不适用的情况下，法官被要求像立法者一样行事，为特定情况制定规则。这种方法为法官提供了相当大的自由度，使其能够根据公正和公平的基本原则制定法律解决方案。例如，在涉及新技术或新兴技术的案件中，法律和习惯都没有提供明确的指导，就可能出现这种情况。最后，第三段引导法官采用学说和判例法中已确立的解决方案。在没有适用法律或习惯的情况下，法官应考虑学术界的法律分析和解释以及司法先例。这可能包括研究专家对类似案件的评论，或分析法院过去在类似情况下的判决。因此，《瑞士民法典》第 1 条体现了灵活、深思熟虑的法律解释的重要性，使法官能够有效应对法律空白并适应不断变化的社会环境。这一规定确保法律保持活力，能够应对个人和社会不断变化的需求。 |
|
| |
|
| = Annexes = | | = 附件 = |
| *[http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/2/210.fr.pdf Code civil suisse] | | *[http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/2/210.fr.pdf Code civil suisse] |
| *[http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/la-constitution/la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958/declaration-des-droits-de-l-homme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.5076.html Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789] | | *[http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/francais/la-constitution/la-constitution-du-4-octobre-1958/declaration-des-droits-de-l-homme-et-du-citoyen-de-1789.5076.html Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789] |
| Ligne 144 : |
Ligne 144 : |
| **[http://www.icitizenforum.com/french/virginia-declaration-rights version française] | | **[http://www.icitizenforum.com/french/virginia-declaration-rights version française] |
|
| |
|
| = Reference = | | = 参考资料 = |
| <references /> | | <references /> |
|
| |
|
| [[Category:droit]] | | [[Category:droit]] |
| [[Category:Victor Monnier]] | | [[Category:Victor Monnier]] |
根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]
法律是由法律规则构成的，而现实则是由实际情况构成的。法律规则包括构成法律框架的法律、法规和法律原则。这些规则旨在指导和规范社会中个人和组织的行为。另一方面，"实际情况 "指的是日常生活中出现的真实、具体和实际的情况。这些情况可能千差万别，并不总能简单或直接地解释现行法律。
因此，适用法律涉及解释和调整法律规则，使其适用于具体的实际情况。这往往需要法律判断力来平衡法律条文与每个案件的实际、社会和人文现实。法官、律师和其他法律专业人员在这一过程中发挥着至关重要的作用，确保司法公正并符合既定的法律原则。
法律三段论或归纳三段论是法律推理的基本方法，可将法律规则应用于实际情况。这一思维过程分为几个阶段。首先，需要确定相关的法律规则。该规则通常源自成文法、法规、法律原则或判例法，它确立了适用于各种情况的一般性命题。接下来，这一过程需要对相关情况的具体事实进行仔细分析。这一阶段至关重要，因为它涉及对实际情况的详细而准确的了解。例如，在合同纠纷中，事实可能包括合同条款、相关各方的行为以及达成协议的背景。最后一个阶段是归入，即事实归入法律规则。这一阶段决定了一般规则如何适用于案件的特定情况。例如，如果法律规定，未经所有相关方同意，合同无效，而事实证明，其中一方未给予知情同意，则法官可认定合同无效。
因此，法律大纲不仅仅是一种智力练习；它还是一种重要的工具，可确保法律裁决符合逻辑、前后一致并符合法律标准。这种方法不仅能确保法律规则得到正确应用，还有助于维护司法的可预见性和公正性。
法律的适用性取决于其生效和持续有效性。法律一旦通过立法程序，就不能立即适用。它在法律文本本身规定的日期或其他法规确定的日期生效。这一时期允许个人和机构为遵守新法律做好准备。另一方面，废止问题对于确定法律的适用性也至关重要。一项法律在被明确废除或被新法律取代之前一直有效。废止可以是全部废止，即整部法律都不适用；也可以是部分废止，即只有法律的某些部分被废除。在某些法律体系中，还有过时的概念，即如果一项法律没有被使用或被认为过时，它就可能变得不适用。即使一项法律已被废除，某些过渡性条款也可能适用。这些条款旨在管理从旧法规到新法规的过渡，并处理旧法律下存在的法律情况。因此，生效和废除是决定法律如何以及何时适用的关键程序，可确保法律框架的稳定性和可预测性。
在两院制立法体系中，有两个独立的议院（通常是下院和上院），法律的通过需要两院的批准。通过立法的过程涉及几个关键阶段。首先，通常由政府或议会成员提出法案。然后，在其中一个议院对该法案进行辩论和审查，并可能对其进行修改。经过第一阶段的辩论和批准后，法案进入另一议院。再次进行辩论，并可能做出进一步修正。一项法律要想获得通过，其最终形式必须得到参众两院的认可。这往往意味着参众两院之间的来回过程，尤其是当一院做出的修改需要另一院进一步批准时。这一过程可确保对法案进行仔细审查和平衡考虑。一旦参众两院批准了相同版本的文本，法案即被视为通过。根据具体的政治体制，下一步可能是国家元首（如总统或君主）的批准或核准，之后法案即成为法律，并可在指定日期或根据法律本身的规定生效。这种两院制的通过程序旨在确保立法过程中的全面审查和多元化代表，反映社会中的不同利益和观点。
在瑞士的立法体系中，法律的颁布是法律通过后的一个重要过程。这一阶段标志着从法案过渡到官方认可和适用的法律。瑞士法律制定过程的特点是融入了直接民主，体现了国家的基本民主原则。一方面，当涉及宪法修正案或必须进行全民公决的法律等重要法律时，颁布要遵循特定的程序。在瑞士人民通过全民公决批准一项法律提案后，联邦委员会作为执行机构正式确认全民公决的结果。例如，在瑞士人民直接参与决策的宪法修正案中，就会出现这种情况。联邦委员会的确认标志着法律的颁布，表明该法律已准备就绪，可以付诸实施。另一方面，对于不需要全民公决的普通法律，则在全民公决期限到期后颁布。在此期间，公民有机会通过收集足够的签名要求全民公决来对法律提出质疑。如果在截止日期前没有公民投票的要求，作为中央行政机构的联邦总理府将正式颁布法律。这一阶段确认法律是按照民主程序通过的，而且在生效方面没有重大法律障碍。因此，瑞士的法律颁布体现了代议制民主和直接民主的独特结合，确保法律不仅由选举产生的代表通过，而且在某些情况下直接由人民批准。这种方式增强了法律的合法性和可接受性，确保瑞士的法律框架与公民的意愿保持一致。
在《官方汇编》上公布法律是立法过程中的一个重要步骤，尤其是在瑞士的法律体系中。公布法律的主要目的是使人人都能查阅和了解法律，这也是法律的一项基本原则：法律要想适用，就必须向公众开放，并为受其影响的人们所知晓。官方汇编》作为按时间顺序排列的出版物，按颁布的先后顺序收录了法律文本。该出版物不仅向公众传播立法信息，还可作为法律专业人士、政府机构和公民的官方参考资料。官方汇编》的出版保证了立法过程的透明度，使社会所有参与者都能关注法律框架的发展。通过使法律易于查阅，《官方汇编》有助于确保公民和法律实体了解其权利和义务。这对合法性原则至关重要，该原则规定任何人都不得无视法律。因此，法律的官方出版物在维护法律秩序、促进社会公正和可预测性方面发挥着重要作用。
瑞士法律体系中有两种官方出版物在传播和组织联邦法律方面发挥着至关重要的作用：《官方汇编》（OR）和《系统汇编》（SC）。这两部汇编具有不同的特点和目标，反映了查阅和分析法律的不同方式。正式汇编》简称 RO，是按时间顺序排列的出版物。它按照颁布的顺序汇集法律文本。这意味着法律、法令和其他法律文本是按照其生效的顺序出版的。这种按时间顺序排列的方法对于跟踪立法发展和了解法律通过的历史背景特别有用。因此，对于对立法史和立法变化顺序感兴趣的法律专业人士和研究人员来说，《RO》是必不可少的。Recueil systématique 的缩写为 RS，按主题编排。RS 不按时间顺序排列，而是按主题领域或主题（如家庭法、商法或刑法）对法律文本进行分组。这种按主题编排的方式使寻求特定主题具体信息的人更容易找到和查阅法律文本。因此，对于法律从业人员、学生和任何需要快速有效地查阅特定领域相关法律的人来说，《汇编》是一个非常有价值的工具。这两本书分别从不同角度全面介绍了瑞士联邦法律。RO》提供了历史和顺序的概览，而《RS》则提供了有组织和专题的视角。它们共同确保从法律专业人士到普通公民的广大用户都能查阅、理解和使用瑞士联邦法律。
瑞士联邦公报》在法律出版系统中发挥着独特而互补的作用。作为一份以瑞士三种官方语言（德语、法语和意大利语）出版的周刊，其主要目的是提供有关立法和政府活动的最新信息。与侧重于公布已颁布法律的《官方汇编》不同，《联邦公报》侧重于立法过程的初期和中期阶段。它提供有关议会通过的新法律的信息，重点是全民公决的最后期限。这在瑞士的民主制度中至关重要，因为公民有机会要求就最近通过的法律进行全民公决。在《联邦公报》上公布后，全民公决的最后期限就开始了。除了向公众和利益相关者通报全民公决的最后期限，《联邦公报》也是向议员和公众通报当前法案和立法辩论的一种沟通手段。它可能包括报告、新闻稿、政府公告以及与立法进程相关的其他信息。因此，《联邦公报》是瑞士政府透明度和民主参与的重要工具。它使公民和议员能够及时了解立法动态，并通过确保广泛提供和获取必要的信息，为行使全民公决等民主权利提供便利。
法律生效是指法律开始具有约束力并开始适用。在瑞士法律体系中，法律生效的程序一般由法律文本本身或联邦委员会的决定确定。当一项法律由议会通过时，它可以在文本中直接规定生效日期。这种做法通常适用于需要提前准备的法律，以便个人、企业和政府机构适应新的法律要求。如果法律没有明确规定生效日期，则由瑞士联邦政府的执行机构联邦委员会负责确定生效日期。联邦委员会在作出这一决定时会考虑各种因素，如需要留出足够的时间来实施、法律的实际影响以及与其他现行法律或政策的协调等。法律生效是一个重要的里程碑，因为此时法律规定才具有约束力，不遵守法律将承担法律后果。这就强调了通过《联邦公报》和《官方汇编》等渠道宣传和公布法律的重要性，以确保所有利益相关者都能了解并准备好遵守新法规。通过确定生效日期，联邦委员会在确保平稳过渡到适用新法律标准方面发挥了关键作用。
在瑞士这样的法律体系中，制定和适用法律的过程是一个有条不紊、一丝不苟的过程，首先是议会通过法律。在第一阶段，民选代表在两院制背景下对法案进行辩论和修正，两院对拟议立法的内容和相关性进行审查。一个具体的例子可能是通过一项新的环境法，议会讨论其影响并调整其条款，以解决环境和经济问题。议会通过法律后，法律即被颁布。这一正式步骤通常由瑞士联邦委员会执行，是对法律的正式承认。颁布是一个信号，表明法律已达到所有必要标准，可以向公众公布。例如，一项关于道路安全的法律颁布后将正式公布，表明其重要性和即将生效。颁布之后是公布。法律将以官方汇编的形式公布，使所有公民和有关各方都能了解该法律。公布可确保法律的透明度和可及性，就像新的税收法规一样，必须清楚地告知公民和企业准确的细节和影响。最后，生效是法律开始适用的阶段。适用日期可以在法律文本中明确规定，也可以由联邦委员会确定。这一阶段标志着法律条款必须得到尊重和遵守。以新的数据保护法为例：一旦该法生效，公司和组织就必须遵守管理个人数据的新标准。从通过到生效的这一过程，确保了每项法律都经过仔细审查、论证和沟通，体现了民主和法律原则，同时也保证了公民对未来法律变化的充分了解和准备。
在法律上，废止是指一项立法行为被同级或更高级别的新行为所废除或压制的过程。法案可以全部废止，也可以部分废止。一旦被废除，立法行为就不再产生法律效力，这意味着它不再适用，也不能再在司法判决或法律交易中被援引。
废止这一概念在法律中至关重要，拉丁语格言 "Lex posterior derogat priori "概括了这一概念，译为 "后法减损前法"。这意味着，当两部法律发生冲突时，较新的法律通常优先于较早的法律。这一格言是法律规范等级的关键原则，确保法律体系保持连贯和与时俱进。废止的一个具体例子可能是引入新的隐私法，取代并凌驾于先前关于同一主题的法律之上。新法律一旦颁布并生效，就会使以前的法律变得过时和不适用。
废除是立法者的一项重要工具，可确保法律体系始终适应社会变化、技术变革和新的伦理道德标准。它还可以废除那些已经多余或被认为不合适或无效的法律。简而言之，废止对于维持一个充满活力、反应迅速、能够应对不断变化的社会需求的法律体系至关重要。
您所描述的原则与法律的基本概念--法律不溯及既往密切相关。根据这一原则，新的法律规范不得追溯影响在先前规则支持下出现的情况。这意味着法律不能适用于其生效前发生的情况、行为或事实。
这项不溯及既往的原则植根于 18 世纪的基本权利宣言。1776 年 6 月 12 日的《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》第 9 条以及 1789 年 8 月 26 日的《人权和公民权利宣言》第 8 条就是一个典型的例子。这些基本文本源于现代人权时代的开端，为防止法律的溯及既往，特别是刑事领域的法律溯及既往奠定了基础。法国大革命时期通过的《人权和公民权利宣言》第 8 条明确规定，只能制定必要的刑罚，而且只能根据行为发生时有效的法律对个人进行处罚。这一规定旨在确保公正司法，保护公民免受任意适用法律之害。同样，《弗吉尼亚权利宣言》（美国宪法的前身）第 9 条也反映了这些公正和法律可预测性的价值观。这些原则在当时具有革命性意义，并极大地影响了现代法律制度的发展。这些历史性文件中提出的不溯及既往原则是法治的支柱。它确保个人不受在其行为发生时并不存在的法律的约束，从而提供保护，防止事后法律变更改变其行为的法律后果。这一原则增强了人们对法律制度的信心，因为它向公民保证法律不会被任意或不公正地适用。
这一原则对于保证法律的确定性和可预测性至关重要。它保护个人免受追溯适用法律变更的影响，尤其是在追溯适用可能造成损害或不公平的情况下。在实践中，这可确保个人不会因行为或事件发生时并不存在的法律而被追究责任。法律不溯及既往是公正和公平的支柱，可确保个人不会因不可预测的突然立法变化而受到惩罚。这一原则有助于维持人们对法律制度的信心，保护个人的基本权利。
瑞士刑法典》第 2 条是实施法律不溯及既往原则的完美范例，同时还纳入了有利于被告的重要例外。本条规定了《刑法典》在时间性和管辖权方面的适用规则。
该条第一部分规定，任何人在《刑法典》生效后犯下重罪或轻罪，应根据其规定进行判决。这直接体现了不溯及既往的原则，即根据行为发生时有效的法律对行为进行评估。这确保了个人不会根据其行为发生时并不存在的法律受到审判，从而确保了法律的公平和可预测的适用。该条第二部分引入了不溯及既往原则的一个显著例外，即 "较轻刑法"。根据这一规定，如果一项罪行或轻罪是在《刑法典》生效之前实施的，但犯罪人在生效日之后才被送上法庭，且新法典的规定比以前的法律对被告更有利，则适用新法典。这种例外情况是法律制度倾向于有利于被告的解释和法律的一个例子，这种做法反映了无罪推定原则和避免不公正的严厉处罚的愿望。瑞士刑法典》第 2 条说明了不溯及既往原则的复杂性和细微差别，该条兼顾了可预测司法的需要和对被告公平公正的原则。
在刑法中适用不溯及既往原则有一个重要的细微差别，特别是与 "较轻刑法 "理论有关的细微差别。正如你在《瑞士刑法典》第 2 条中所提到的，这一理论是不溯及既往的一般规则的一个显著例外。根据这一理论，如果新刑法比犯罪时有效的旧法更宽松或对被告更有利，则新法可以追溯适用。这一例外基于公平正义原则，旨在确保被告从尽可能宽松的法律中受益。这种做法反映了在法律制度中保护被告权利的取向。它所依据的理念是，司法不仅要公平、可预测，而且要避免过度严厉的惩罚。在实践中，这意味着如果在犯罪和判刑之间法律发生了变化，并且这种变化对被告有利，则必须适用这种变化。这种不溯及既往的减损表明刑法对人权基本原则的适应性和敏感性。必须在严格适用法律与司法需要考虑到不断变化的情况以及不断演变的社会和法律规范之间保持平衡。
欧洲人权公约》第 7 条体现了刑法的一项关键原则，即犯罪和刑罚的合法性。该原则规定，任何人的任何行为或不行为，如果在实施时根据国内法或国际法不构成刑事犯罪，则不得被视为犯有刑事罪。这一规定在保护个人权利和维护公平正义方面发挥着至关重要的作用。该原则确保法律的制定清晰易懂，使公民能够理解其行为的法律后果。例如，如果个人实施的行为在实施时未被定义为犯罪，那么如果该行为后来被定为刑事犯罪，则不能对其进行追溯起诉。这种做法可以保护公民免受任意或不可预测的法律变化的影响，确保没有人会因为实施时并不违法的行为而受到惩罚。
第 7 条还体现了民主制度对刑法不溯及既往的承诺。它防止政府对过去的行为适用新的刑法，因为这种做法不仅不公正，而且有违基本的正义原则。这种防止追溯适用刑法的保护对于公众对法律制度的信任和法律的可预见性至关重要。最后，《欧洲人权公约》的这一条款是防止滥用立法权的保障。它防止国家因个人行为在实施时未被视为犯罪而对其进行惩罚，从而保护公民免受任意性和滥用权力之害。第 7 条不仅保证了刑法的明确性和准确性，也是保护基本权利的支柱，确保以公平和可预测的方式执行司法。
过渡法通常体现为立法中的过渡条款，在立法变革过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。这些条款是特殊的法律规则，旨在临时性地促进新旧立法的过渡。它们考虑到了个人、企业和政府机构调整和适应立法变化的需要。这些过渡性规定有几个基本目的。首先，它们提供了一个适应期，使有关各方能够逐步遵守新的要求，而不会出现大的混乱。例如，如果一项新的法律规定了更严格的环境标准，过渡性条款可以为公司提供遵守新规定的时间，从而避免突然或不稳定的经济后果。
其次，过渡性条款有助于避免或减轻追溯性法律效力。例如，过渡性条款可以明确规定，新法律的某些部分不适用于新法律生效之日已经发生的情况。这在税法或合同法等领域可能至关重要，因为在这些领域，当事人需要明确新法律如何影响现有协议或过去的纳税义务。此外，过渡性法律还可用于澄清新旧法律条款可能发生冲突的情况，为在特定情况下适用哪部法律制定准则。因此，过渡法是确保立法平稳过渡的重要工具。它有助于维护法律的稳定性，确保立法变革得到公平有效的实施，而不会产生不可预见或不相称的后果。
法律在空间中的适用，通常被称为国际私法或法律冲突，是一个复杂的领域，涉及在涉及外国或跨境因素的情况下如何适用法律。在日益全球化的世界中，个人、货物、服务和资本很容易跨越国界，因此这一法律领域变得尤为重要。国际私法的基本原则是确定在涉及多个法律体系的情况下，哪个司法管辖区拥有管辖权，哪个国家的法律适用。例如，如果一份合同在一个国家签署，但要在另一个国家履行，国际私法有助于解决以下问题：哪个国家拥有审理争议的管辖权？合同应适用哪个国家的法律？
要解决这些问题，律师需要依据规则和原则来确定适用法律。这些规则包括但不限于合同签订地法（合同地法）、义务履行地法（解决地法）或与案件关系最密切的地方的法律。除国家立法外，国际公约和条约在空间法的适用方面也发挥着重要作用。例如，《国际儿童拐骗事件的民事问题海牙公约》规定了送回国外被拐儿童的程序。因此，跨境适用法律不仅需要全面了解国内法，还需要全面了解国际规则和法律冲突原则，从而确保跨境案件得到公正一致的处理。
法律的属地性原则是国际法的基石，它确认一国的立法只适用于其领土边界内。这一概念强调各国拥有制定和实施本国法律的主权，从而承认各国在管理其内部事务方面的自主性和独立性。根据这一原则，个人或实体须遵守所在国的法律。例如，意大利公民在意大利时受意大利法律管辖，但前往西班牙时则受西班牙法律管辖。这一规则对于法律的连贯性和可预见性至关重要，它确保个人了解自己应遵守的法律，并确保国家在其领土内保持立法权威。
然而，法律的属地性并非没有复杂性和例外情况。例如，在国际刑法领域，某些严重罪行，如战争罪和种族灭绝罪，可以根据普遍管辖权原则进行起诉。这一例外反映了国际社会认识到，某些行为对世界秩序的破坏性如此之大，以至于不能受领土边界的限制。此外，随着数字技术和经济全球化的到来，某些法律，尤其是与网络安全、知识产权和金融法规有关的法律，可能会产生域外影响。例如，数据保护法，如欧盟的《通用数据保护条例》（GDPR），如果位于欧盟以外的公司处理欧盟公民的数据，就会受到影响。
法律属地性原则是国际法中的一个基本概念，它规定位于一国的任何人或事物都受该国法律的管辖。这一原则强化了每个国家对其领土拥有主权的理念，使其能够对位于该国的人员、货物和活动行使立法权。这意味着国家法律是规范一国境内行为和关系的主要准则。然而，这一原则也有明显的例外，尤其是在涉及公权力行使的公法领域。最重要的例外之一是与外交官有关的例外。根据国际公法，特别是 1961 年《维也纳外交关系公约》，外国外交官和外交使团工作人员享有特殊地位。
根据该公约，外交官享有东道国刑事、民事和行政管辖豁免权。这意味着他们不受东道国普通公民或居民相同法律的管辖。例如，派驻法国的外交官在履行公务时的大多数行为都不受法国管辖。这种豁免权旨在确保外交官在履行职责时不必担心东道国的干涉或迫害，从而促进国际关系和国家间的交流。外交官的这一例外情况说明了国际公法原则如何能够优先于法律的属地原则。它强调了平衡国家主权与国际关系和谐运作要求的必要性。
外国外交官治外法权原则是国际法中的一个重要概念，在维护国家间有效、和谐的外交关系方面发挥着至关重要的作用。根据这一原则，尽管外交官和使馆实际位于东道国，但他们不受该国的管辖，而受其本国的管辖。这一规则对于确保外交使团的独立和安全至关重要。外交豁免是这一原则的应用，为外交官提供在东道国免受起诉的保护。这种豁免权既适用于刑事诉讼，也适用于民事诉讼，确保外交官在履行职责时不受干扰。例如，如果外交官在东道国犯有交通罪，他或她就不能像当地公民一样受到同样的法律诉讼。
治外法权还赋予使馆馆舍一种其所代表国家的 "主权领土"。这意味着未经使馆同意，东道国当局不得搜查或扣押使馆馆舍，从而为外交官提供了一个安全的避风港，使他们能够在不受外界干扰的情况下处理敏感事务。值得注意的是，尽管外交官享有治外法权，但他们仍有义务遵守本国法律。根据 1961 年《维也纳外交关系公约》的原则，我们也鼓励外交官尊重东道国的法律法规。该公约确立了外交活动的国际标准，旨在促进在相互尊重和安全的框架内开展国际合作。这种治外法权对国际关系的运作至关重要。它确保外交官能够有效履行公务，同时维护国家间的相互尊重和主权。通过平衡国家主权和国际合作的需要，治外法权原则极大地促进了全球外交关系的稳定性和有效性。
治外法权原则在航空领域得到了有效应用，在航空领域，飞机被视为悬挂其国旗的国家领土的延伸。这意味着，即使飞机在国际航班上或在另一个国家的领土上，它也受其注册国的法律和司法管辖。这一概念是国家对领空主权的延伸，对于规范和管理国际空中交通至关重要。当在某国注册的航空器穿越国际空域或在另一国降落时，航空器原籍国的法律仍适用于机上。例如，如果在法国注册的飞机上发生事故，无论是在国际空域还是在另一国的地面上，一般都按照法国法律处理。这一原则确保了飞机上法律适用的一致性和统一性，鉴于航空运输的国际性，这一点至关重要。不过，这一规则也有一定的限制和例外。在特殊情况下，如飞机上发生严重犯罪或威胁到飞机着陆国安全的情况，地方当局可进行干预并适用本国法律。此外，1963 年《东京公约》和 1971 年《蒙特利尔公约》等国际协定对飞机上适用的管辖权和法律做出了具体规定。
解释法律规则是一个复杂而微妙的智力过程，对于确定和澄清立法和法规文本的真正含义至关重要。这种做法在法律领域至关重要，因为法律的措辞并不总是很明确或详尽，这就为不同的解释留下了空间。
法律解释有多种方法。一种常见的方法是字面解释，重点是法律用词的普通含义。例如，如果一项法律禁止 "高速行驶"，那么字面解释将试图根据普通语言定义 "高速行驶 "的确切含义。然而，字面解释并不总是充分或适当的。因此，律师通常会转向目的论解释，即试图理解法律背后的目的或意图。例如，就环境立法而言，目的论解释考虑了保护环境的总体目标，以指导法律的适用。
系统解释是另一种重要方法，它将法律置于整个法律体系的背景下进行研究。这包括考虑特定法律如何与其他法律或既定法律原则相协调。此外，还可以使用历史解释，尤其是在复杂案件中。这种方法考虑到法律通过之前的历史环境和立法辩论，从而让人们深入了解立法者的意图。法官在解释法律方面发挥着至关重要的作用，尤其是在面对必须将法律适用于具体、有时甚至是新情况的案件时。他们的解释直接影响到司法的实施，说明这一做法在维护法律秩序和实现社会公平正义方面至关重要。
在社会生活中适用法律的现实有效地凸显了法律与事实完全吻合的情况的罕见性。这一现象凸显了解释法律规则的持续必要性。尽管法律条文措辞谨慎，但无法预见现实生活中的所有细微差别和复杂情况。社会生活中的事实千差万别，每个案例都可能呈现出现有法律未明确涵盖的独特性。这种情况的多样性使得解释不仅不可避免，而且对于确保公平有效地适用法律至关重要。例如，在合同纠纷中，合同条款可能看似明确，但将其适用于具体案件时可能需要进行大量解释，以理解当事人的意图和协议签订的背景。当法律的措辞模糊或笼统时，解释也变得至关重要。在解释法律时，法官力求赋予法律一个既忠实于立法机构意图又适合相关案件具体情况的含义。这项解释任务不仅要求对法律本身有透彻的理解，还要求对更广泛的法律原则以及社会和历史背景有透彻的理解。归根结底，解释是法律体系不可或缺的组成部分，是法律条文与复杂多变的社会生活现实之间的桥梁。它确保法律始终具有相关性、公正性，并适应社会的不同需求和挑战。
解释法律是一项复杂的任务，涉及多个方面，每个方面都有其特定的视角和专业知识。法官是这一过程的核心，他们作为法律的主要解释者发挥着至关重要的作用。在司法工作中，他们分析法律并将其应用于所审理的案件。他们的裁决并不局限于解决个别争端；他们往往会开创先例，为今后的法律解释提供指导。例如，许多国家最高法院的判决对法律的理解和适用产生了持久的影响。与此同时，学说（包括学者、律师和法学家的工作）在法律解释中发挥着咨询但有影响力的作用。尽管他们的分析和评论不具有法律约束力，但他们提供的深入观点可以为法律推理提供信息并产生影响。例如，关于具体立法的学术文章或专家评论可以提供论据和解释，然后供法官在裁决中使用。最后，立法机构作为负责制定法律的实体，拥有权威解释权。当立法机构进行干预以澄清或修订法律时，这种干预被认为是权威性的，因为它来自制定法律的权威机构。当法律含糊不清或不完整时，这种形式的解释可能是必要的。例如，议会可能会通过新的立法或修正案，以澄清之前含糊不清或可作不同解释的法律条款。法官、学者和立法者等每个角色都对法律的解释和适用做出了独特的贡献。他们之间的互动和相互影响确保了法律始终保持活力、适应性和相关性，以应对现代社会不断变化的挑战和复杂性。
法律空白是任何法律体系中都不可避免的现象，这是由于立法者在起草法律时很难甚至不可能预见到所有可能出现的情况。当出现现有法律未明确涵盖的实际情况时，就会产生这些空白，从而造成法律不确定性。实在法中的空白有两种类型：自愿空白和非自愿空白。当立法机构有意选择不对某一事项或情况进行规范，而将其交由法官或其他解决机制酌情处理时，就会出现自愿空白。例如，在某些法律领域，立法机构可能故意留下模糊的术语或概念供解释，以便在适用法律时具有灵活性。
另一方面，当立法机构在没有任何特别意图的情况下，未能解决起草法律时没有考虑到的问题或情况时，就会出现意外空白。随着社会的发展、新技术或新情况的出现，这些空白可能会变得明显。例如，互联网和社交媒体的出现带来了许多法律挑战，而传统的通信和隐私法律并未预见到这些挑战。当这些空白出现时，通常需要法官通过解释现有法律以适用于新情况来填补这些空白。这一过程可能涉及将现有原则扩展到新的情况，或与法律规定的情况进行类比。在某些情况下，对空白的认识可能会导致立法机构进行干预，通过新法律或修正案来填补空白。在制定法律时，立法机构不可能预见到所有可能出现的实际情况。如果立法者没有提到这种情况，那么实在法中就存在空白。这种空白可能是有意的，也可能是无意的。
在存在空白的情况下解释法律，即现有规则未涵盖特定情况时，需要使用特定的解释方法。这些方法旨在填补法律空白，为现有法律未明确涵盖的情况提供解决方案。常用的方法之一是类比解释。这种方法是将管辖类似案件或与相关情况共享基本原则的现有规则适用于未涵盖的情况。例如，如果出现了一种新的商业合同形式，而现有合同法并未明确涵盖，法官可以寻找适用于类似合同形式的规则，并通过类比加以适用。另一种方法是目的论解释，其重点是立法机构的意图或目标。这种方法旨在确定现行法律的根本目的，并扩大其适用范围，以便在未涵盖的情况下实现该目的。例如，如果一项法律旨在保护在线隐私，那么这种意图可用于解释法律，以涵盖法规中未明确规定的新技术情景。
在某些法律体系中，法律的一般原则在填补空白方面也发挥着重要作用。这些原则代表了法律体系的概念基础，可在法律未明确规定的情况下作为解释和决策的指南。最后，在某些情况下，空白可能会促使立法机构进行干预，制定新的法律或修订现有法律，以明确处理未涵盖的情况。在技术或环境等快速发展的领域，这种情况经常出现，因为这些领域经常出现新的挑战。总之，在存在空白的情况下解释法律，需要将创造力、严谨的分析和对法律原则的透彻理解结合起来，以确保做出的决定公平、合理并符合法律制度的精神。
法内空白的概念是指法律有意或无意地为法官的自由裁量权留下空间的一种特殊情况，通常是由于使用了模糊、未知或不确定的术语。这种形式的空白的区别在于，立法机构认识到现实生活中情况的复杂性和多样性，故意在法律的某些方面留下解释的余地。在这种情况下，立法机构让法官自行决定在特定情况下如何适用法律。例如，法律可能会使用 "合理"、"公平 "或 "符合公众利益 "等术语，而这些术语并没有严格的定义。这些术语给予法官一定的自由度，使其能够根据每个案件的具体情况来解释法律。
这种方法承认立法机构无法预见可能出现的所有特殊情况和细微差别。通过对某些术语进行开放式解释，立法机构允许法官直接面对每个案件的具体事实，利用其专业知识和判断力以最公平、最适当的方式适用法律。因此，"法律内空白 "是法律的一个重要组成部分，体现了法律适用中必要的灵活性。它允许法律制度在忠实于立法机构的总体意图和目标的同时，适应个别案件。这种灵活性对于确保不仅根据法律条文，而且根据法律精神伸张正义至关重要。
瑞士债务法典》第 44 条是立法者向法官移交案件的一个示例，其中使用了某些公式来赋予法官在适用法律时的自由裁量权。本条说明了立法者如何有意为法官留出回旋余地，以考虑到每个案件的具体情况。
第 44 条第 1 款规定，法官有权根据具体标准减少损害赔偿，甚至不判给损害赔偿。这些标准包括受害方同意损害的情况，或受害方对损害负有责任的事实。该条款允许法官考虑损害情况下的细微差别和共同责任。第二款更进一步，允许法官在非蓄意或重大过失造成损害的情况下，以及在完全赔偿将使债务人陷入困境的情况下，公平地减少损害赔偿额。该条款给予法官必要的自由，以评估赔偿对债务人造成的经济后果，并相应调整损害赔偿额。
这些条款表明，立法机构认识到法律情况的复杂性，以及在解决这些问题时需要有一定程度的灵活性。瑞士债务法典》委托法官以适合各种情况的方式解释和适用法律，表明了重视公平和考虑个别情况的法律态度。这表明了对司法机构的信任，即在适用法律原则时应表现出鉴别力和适应性。
瑞士民法典》第 4 条强调了法官自由裁量权的概念，这是适用法律的关键因素。该条款说明了立法者是如何承认和界定法官在解释和适用法律方面的作用的，同时考虑到每个案件的独特性。根据该条款，法官不仅要严格适用法律规则，还要在法律允许或要求的情况下根据公平原则做出判断。当法律本身明确赋予法官考虑案件特殊情况或 "正当理由 "的权力时，就会出现这种情况。例如，在家庭或儿童监护权案件中，法官可能不得不根据案件的具体情况，做出偏离严格适用法律的决定，以最大限度地保护儿童的利益。
这种自由裁量权对于确保司法的适应性和个性化至关重要。它承认法律情况并非总是非黑即白，一成不变地适用法律有时会导致不公平或不恰当的结果。通过赋予法官灵活适用法律的权力，《瑞士民法典》使法律的解释和适用既公平又能适应复杂多样的社会生活现实。这一条反映了瑞士法律制度对法官的鉴别力和能力的信任，使他们能够利用自己的专业知识在每个案件中取得最公平、最适当的结果。归根结底，法官的自由裁量权是确保司法公正的重要工具，它不仅仅是机械地适用法律，也是对每种特定情况下公平和正义的审慎考虑。
法律空白（praeter legem gap）或法律之外的空白（gap beyond the law）是指立法者往往无意中留下了法律真空，没有为特定情况提供任何法律规定。当出现立法者在起草法律时没有设想或考虑到的情况时，就会出现这种形式的空白，导致缺乏如何处理这些情况的规则或指南。与立法内空白不同的是，立法者有意留下一定程度的解释空间，而立法前空白通常是未曾预料到的，是对未来发展缺乏预见或认识的结果。这种空白在技术等快速发展的领域尤为普遍，因为在这些领域，新情况出现的速度可能快于立法程序对其进行规范的速度。
例如，与人工智能、在线数据隐私或基因组编辑的影响有关的法律问题，都是可能存在 "法律至上 "空白的领域。在这些情况下，没有具体的法律框架来指导法律的适用或解释。当发现存在 "法律赞许 "漏洞时，法官可使用各种方法来弥补漏洞。他们可以依据法律的一般原则、与法律规定的类似情况的类比，或基于公平和正义的考虑。在某些情况下，承认这种空白可能会促进立法进程，促使立法机构起草新法律或修订现有法律，以明确处理有关情况。
瑞士民法典》第 1 条明确说明了法律制度如何处理现行法律未涵盖特定情况的问题。该法律条款强调了解释和适用法律所需的方法和灵活性。根据该条第一款的规定，法律应管辖其规定范围内的所有事项，无论是明文规定还是默示精神。这意味着法官必须首先在现有法律框架内寻求解决方案，不仅要根据法律条文解释法律，还要根据立法机构的意图和目的解释法律。例如，在合同纠纷中，法官将寻求适用《法典》中规定的合同法原则，同时考虑立法机构对合同协议的总体意图。
如果没有具体的法律规定可适用，《瑞士民法典》第二款授权法官参考习惯法。在习惯法也不适用的情况下，法官被要求像立法者一样行事，为特定情况制定规则。这种方法为法官提供了相当大的自由度，使其能够根据公正和公平的基本原则制定法律解决方案。例如，在涉及新技术或新兴技术的案件中，法律和习惯都没有提供明确的指导，就可能出现这种情况。最后，第三段引导法官采用学说和判例法中已确立的解决方案。在没有适用法律或习惯的情况下，法官应考虑学术界的法律分析和解释以及司法先例。这可能包括研究专家对类似案件的评论，或分析法院过去在类似情况下的判决。因此，《瑞士民法典》第 1 条体现了灵活、深思熟虑的法律解释的重要性，使法官能够有效应对法律空白并适应不断变化的社会环境。这一规定确保法律保持活力，能够应对个人和社会不断变化的需求。
